memory

• stages of memory and information processing

  input -> processing (encoding, storage, retrieval) -> output.
• input

  for human memory, this refers to the sensory information we recieve from our environment.
• processing


  the operations we perform on sensory information in the brain.
• encoding


  turning sensory information into an electrochemical memory trace that can be used and stored by the brain. types: acoustic, visual, and semantic.
• acoustic encoding


  the process of storing sound in our memory system.
• visual encoding


  the process of storing something that is seen in our memory system.
• semantic encoding


  the process of storing the meaning of information in our memory system, rather than the sound of a word, we store the definition/meaning of that word.
• storage


  the retention of information in our memory system.
• retrieval


  the recall of stored memories.
• output


  for memory, this refers to the information we recall; in a broader sense, output can refer to behavioural response.
• short-term memory


  our initial memory store that is temporary and limited.
• long-term memory


  a memory store that holds potentially limitless amounts of information for up to a lifetime.
• duration


  the length of time information can be stored in short-term and long-term memory.
• capacity


  the amount of information that can be stored in short-term and long-term memory.
• duration and capacity of short-term memory

  temporary store that lasts around 18 seconds without rehearsal. it can hold 7 +/- 2 chunks. through rehearsal, short-term memory can encode information acoustically, storing it for many minutes, and it can then be transferred to the long-term memory store.
• duration and capacity of long-term memory

  it can last for minutes or up to an entire lifetime, and it can potentially hold an unlimited amount of information. encoding in this memory store is largely semantic, but can be visual or acoustic.
• displacement


  when the short-term memory becomes 'full' and new information pushes out older information.
• interference


  when new information overwrites older information in your long-term memory, for example when a new phone number takes the place of an old number in your memory.
• retroactive interference


  information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.
• proactive interference


  information learned earlier interferes with information learned later.
• forgetting in short-term memory

  displacement and decay.
• forgetting in long-term memory

  decay, interference, and retrieval failure.
• the multi-store model of memory

  the memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing.

  
• amnesia


  memory loss, often through accident, disease or injury.
• anterograde amnesia


  a memory condition that means new long-term memories cannot be made; this is typically caused by injury to the brain. they have an intact short-term memory but it seems that their ability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory is damaged.
• retrograde amnesia


  a memory condition that affects recall of memories prior to an injury to the brain. this type of amnesia can be specific to one memory, such as the traumatic incident that caused the injury, or it can be limited to a specific time frame.
• bartlett's (1932) theory of reconstructive memory

  suggests that memories are not exact copies of an event but an interpretation - an active reconstruction. bartlett referred to this general knowledge as schemas.
• active reconstruction


  memory is not an exact copy of what we experienced, but an interpretation or reconstruction of events that are influenced by our schema (expectation) when we remember them again.
• schema


  a packet of knowledge about an event, person, or place that influences how we perceive and remember. they are unique to us and develop over time through our own experiences.
• how schemas influence memory

  omissions, transformations, familiarisation, rationalisation.
• omissions


  when we leave out unfamiliar, irrelevant or unpleasant details when remembering something.
• transformations


  when details are changed to make them more familiar and rational.
• familiarisation


  when unfamiliar details are changed to align with our own schema.
• rationalisation


  when we add details into our recall to give a reason for something that may not have originally fitted with a schema.
• strengths of bartlett's theory

  it has real-world practical application and helps us understand why memory can become distorted. an eyewitness to a crime, for example, can misremember certain events, which may lead to the wrong person being prosecuted. to avoid this, police now use cognitive interviews. his methods to test memory apply to the real world, making his study ecologically valid.
• cognitive interview


  a police interview designed to ensure a witness to a crime does not actively reconstruct their memory.
• ecological validity


  the extent to which the findings still explain the behaviour in different situations.
• weaknesses of bartlett's theory

  bartlett developed his theory by reading through and analysing pictures and stories reproduced by participants. some may argue his interpretations were subjective and may differ from someone else's. this is considered unscientific. he also didn't go through scientific procedures and was more interested in each participant's unique memories rather than the use of standardised procedures and controls. this may weaken the research used to form the theory.
• subjective


  based on personal opinion or feelings.
• atkinson and shiffrin (1968) multi-store model of memory

  a model of memory that identify three distinctly different stores in our memory system: the sensory register (or sensory memory), short-term memory, and long-term memory.