Neuro

• How do organisms respond to their environment?

  Through sensation and reaction
• What is the sequence of response to the environment?

  1. Sensation (Reception)
  2. Transmission to CNS
  3. Perception
  4. Reaction
• What is the first step in sensation?

  Stimulus
• What does sensory transduction involve?

  Converting stimulus into an electrical signal
• What is receptor potential?

  Graded potential based on stimulus intensity
• What are the types of sensory receptors?

  • Electromagnetic Receptor
  • Chemoreceptor
  • Mechanoreceptor
  • Thermoreceptor
  • Osmoreceptor
  • Baroreceptor
• What does an electromagnetic receptor detect?

  Light
• What do chemoreceptors respond to?

  Chemicals
• What do mechanoreceptors detect?

  Mechanical changes like pressure
• What do thermoreceptors detect?

  Temperature changes
• What do osmoreceptors sense?

  Water balance (osmolarity)
• What do baroreceptors detect?

  Pressure changes
• How does signal transmission to the CNS occur?

  • Neuronal Receptors: Generate action potentials
  • Non-Neuronal Receptors: Release neurotransmitters
• How is stimulus intensity encoded?

  By frequency of action potentials
• What happens with a weak stimulus?

  Low frequency of action potentials
• What happens with a strong stimulus?

  High frequency of action potentials
• What is involved in chemical signaling?

  • Ligand binding to a receptor
  • Activation of cellular responses
• What are the types of cellular receptors?

  1. Channel-Linked Receptors
  2. G-Protein Coupled Receptors
  3. Enzyme-Linked Receptors
  4. Intracellular Receptors
• What do channel-linked receptors do?

  Open ion channels upon ligand binding
• What do G-protein coupled receptors do?

  Indirectly activate ion channels or enzymes
• What do enzyme-linked receptors trigger?

  Enzyme activation
• What do intracellular receptors respond to?

  Lipid-soluble signals
• What is signal amplification?

  • One receptor activation leads to multiple molecule activation
  • Often occurs in cascades (e.g., cAMP pathways)
• What does the auditory system detect?

  Sound waves (mechanical vibrations)
• How does the auditory system convert sound waves?

  It converts them into electrical signals
• What are the two main divisions of the auditory system?

  • Peripheral Auditory System
  • Central Auditory System
• What is the role of the central auditory system?

  Processing auditory information
• What is the function of the peripheral auditory system?

  Sound reception and transduction
• What are the three parts of the ear?

  1. Outer Ear
  2. Middle Ear
  3. Inner Ear
• What is the function of the pinna?

  Collects sound waves and funnels them
• How does the ear canal contribute to hearing?

  It amplifies certain frequencies and directs sound
• What is the eardrum also known as?

  Tympanic membrane
• What happens to the eardrum when struck by sound waves?

  It vibrates
• What are the three ossicles in the middle ear?

  Malleus, incus, and stapes
• What is the cochlea responsible for?

  Sound transduction
• What is the function of the ossicles?

  Transfer and amplify vibrations to the inner ear
• What is the role of the basilar membrane?

  Vibrates in response to sound frequency
• What are hair cells?

  Sensory receptors for sound transduction
• How do hair cells convert mechanical vibrations?

  They convert them into electrical signals
• What is the function of the tectorial membrane?

  Overlays hair cells and interacts with them