gender, crime and justice

• What is the gender pattern in crime regarding offenders?

  Most crime is committed by males.
• What proportion of offenders are male?

  4 out of 5 offenders are male.
• Which type of crime do a higher proportion of females commit?

  Property crime, except burglary.
• What types of crimes are males more likely to be convicted of?

  More serious crimes, including violent and sexual crimes.
• What do some sociologists argue about official statistics on female crime?

  They underestimate the amount of female crime.
• What is one reason female crime may be underreported?

  Female crime is less likely to be reported.
• What happens to women's crimes even when they are reported?

  They are less likely to be prosecuted.
• What is the Chivalry Thesis?

  Women are less likely to be prosecuted for offences.
• Who argued that men have a protective attitude towards women?

  Pollak.
• What does Pollak's argument suggest about women's crimes?

  They are less likely to end up in official stats.
• How does Pollak's view relate to Labelling Theory?

  Women are positively labelled by male agents.
• What do self-report studies indicate about female offenders?

  They are treated more leniently.
• What did Hood's study find regarding women defendants?

  Women were about 1/3 less likely to be jailed.
• How do official stats compare for women and men regarding fines and prison sentences?

  Women are more likely to receive a fine.
• What do self-report studies reveal about male crime rates?

  Males commit more offences than females.
• What did Farrington and Morris find regarding women's sentencing?

  Women were not sentenced more leniently.
• What do feminists argue about the criminal justice system (CJS)?

  It is biased against women.
• What double standard do courts have according to Hiedensohn?

  Punishing girls but not boys for promiscuity.
• What does Walklate say about rape cases?

  The victim is put on trial for respectability.
• What did Carlen find regarding Scottish courts and mothers?

  They jail women whose children are in care more often.
• What does Parsons' theory focus on regarding gender differences in crime?

  Gender socialisation and role models in the nuclear family.
• What role do women perform in Parsons' theory?

  Expressive role at home, including primary socialisation.
• How do boys respond to feminine models of behaviour according to Parsons?

  They reject feminine models and adopt masculinity.
• What is 'compensatory, compulsory masculinity'?

  Risk-taking, aggression, and anti-social behaviour.
• What did A. K. Cohen argue about boys without male role models?

  They turn to all-male street gangs for identity.
• What do right realists argue about lone-parent families?

  They lead to boys' delinquency due to absent male role models.
• What did Heidensohn argue about women's crime rates?

  Patriarchal society imposes greater control over women.
• How does patriarchal control operate at home according to Heidensohn?

  Through domestic roles and threat of violence.
• What is the impact of women's domestic roles on their criminal opportunities?

  It restricts their time and movement.
• How does fear of sexual violence control women's public behaviour?

  It restricts their movement in public places.
• What does the 'glass ceiling' refer to in the context of women's crime opportunities?

  It prevents women from rising to senior positions.
• What does Control Theory overlook regarding women's behaviour?

  It ignores free-will and choice in offending.
• What did Carlen study regarding working-class women?

  39 working-class women convicted of various crimes.
• What theory did Carlen use to explain female crime?

  Hirschi’s Control Theory.
• What are the two deals Carlen argues women conform to?

  The class deal and the gender deal.
• What does the class deal promise women?

  A decent standard of living through work.
• What did Carlen find regarding women's experiences with the class deal?

  They often lived in poverty and struggled to find jobs.
• What does the gender deal promise women?

  Emotional and material rewards of family life.
• What did Carlen find regarding women's experiences with the gender deal?

  Many had experienced abuse and broken family bonds.
• What is a criticism of Carlen's study?

  It had a small and unrepresentative sample.