non-experimental research methods

• observational techniques


  • observations involve watching and recording behaviour. most observations are naturalistic, but can occur under controlled conditions

  2 main types:

  • P observation: involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more 'hands-on' perspective
  • non-P observation: involves researchers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied

  observations can also be:

  • overt: Ps are aware they're being observed
  • covert: Ps remain unaware that they're being observed
• observational techniques - advantages

  • high ecological validity
  • practical
  • few demand characteristics
• observational techniques - disadvantages

  • cause and effect - causality can not be inferred
  • observer bias
  • hard to replicate
  • ethics - Ps unaware that they're being studied (invasion of privacy)
• observational design - behavioural categories

  • observers agree on a grid or coding sheet on which to record the behaviour being studied. the behaviour categories chosen should reflect what is being studied
  • rather than writing descriptions of behaviour observed, it is easier to code or rate behaviour using previously agreed scales
  • coding can involve numbers or letters to describe characteristics or observed behaviours
• observational design - sampling procedures

  in observational studies it is difficult to observe all behaviour, especially as it is usually continuous

  • event sampling: counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual or individuals
  • time sampling: counting behaviour in a set time frame
• observational design - inter-observer reliability

  • occurs when independent observers code behaviour in the same way and lessens the chances of observer bias, where an observer sees and records behaviour in a subjective way
  • needs to be established before an observation begins and it is easier to achieve if behavioural categories are clearly defined and do not overlap each other
• questionnaires


  respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes

  2 main types of questions:

  • closed (fixed) questions: involve yes/no answers or a range of fixed responses. answers are easy to quantify but restrict Ps answers
  • open questions: allow Ps to answer in their own words. they are more difficult to analyse, but allow freedom of expression and greater depth answers
• questionnaires - advantages


  • quick
  • quantitative and qualitative analysis
  • lack of investigator effects - can be completed without researchers present
  • replicable
• questionnaires - disadvantages


  • Ps may misinterpret questions
  • biased sample - questionnaires attract certain people
  • low response rates
  • Ps may lie in order to give answers expected from them
• questionnaire construction

  • aim: an exact aim helps, as it's then easier to write questions that address it
  • length: should be short and to the point the longer it is, the more likely people wont do it
  • previous questionnaires: use examples of ones that previously worked, as a basis for the design
  • question formation: should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood
  • pilot study: should be tested on people who can provide detailed and honest feedback on the whole design of it
  • measurement scales: some use measurement scales to assess psychological characteristics or attitudes
• interviews 


  involve researchers asking face-to-face question

  3 main types:

  • structured: involves identical closed questions being read to Ps, with the interviewer writing down answers. interviewers do not not need much training as they are easy to conduct
  • unstructured: involves an informal discussion on a particular topic. interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions
  • semi-structured: involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data
• interviews - advantages


  • complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making Ps feel relaxed and able to talk (unstructured)
  • any misunderstandings can be explained and questions can adapted
  • replicable
• interviews - disadvantages


  • interviewers may unconsciously bias answers
  • interview training - a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews
  • ethical issues - Ps might not know the true purpose of an interview
• design of interviews 


  several interpersonal variables affect this decision:

  • gender and age: the sex and age of interviews affect Ps answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature
  • ethnicity: interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves
  • personal characteristics and adopted role: interviewers can adopt different roles within an interview setting, and use of formal language, accent and appearance can also affect how someone comes across to the interviewee
• correlational studies/analysis


  experiments look for a difference between two conditions of an IV, while correlational studies involve measuring the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables

  • positive correlation: occurs where one co-variable increases another co-variable increases (IV and DV (one not causing the other) association)
  • negative correlation: one co-variable increases while another co-variable decreases
• correlational studies/analysis - advantages

  • allows predictions to be made
  • show the strength of relationship between two co-variables
  • do not require manipulation of variables and so can be used where carrying out an experiment may be unethical
• correlation coefficient


  number version of the correlation

  • -1 : strong negative correlation
  • 0 : no correlation
  • +1 : strong positive correlation
• correlational studies/analysis - disadvantages

  • correlations that appear low can sometimes be significant and vice versa
  • they're not done under controlled conditions so correlations don't show causality
  • extraneous relationships - other variables may influence the co-variables
  • correlations only measure linear relationships
• case studies


  in-depth, detailed investigations of one individual or a small group. they usually include biographical details, behavioural info and experiences of interest

  • case studies allow researchers to examine individuals in great depth. explanations of behaviour are outlined in subjective ways, describing what an individual feels or believes about particular issues
• case studies - advantages

  • rich detail
  • case studies allow psychologists to study unique behaviours or experiences that couldn't have been studied any other way
  • useful for theory contradiction - just one case study can contradict a theory
• case studies - disadvantages

  • not representative
  • researchers conducting case studies may be biased in their interpretation or method of reporting
  • case studies often depend on Ps having full and accurate memories