A01

• Gender dysphoria, a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity, is recognized as a psychological disorder in DSM-5. Some studies indicate differences in brain structure, particularly the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), suggesting a mismatch between gender identity and biological sex as transgender females have a female-sized BST. Genetic studies highlight a strong heritable component, with genetic factors implicated in gender dysphoria development.
• From a social construction perspective, gender identity is seen as a societal invention. Gender dysphoria arises when individuals are forced to conform to binary gender roles. McClintock (2015) illustrates cultural acceptance of gender variation in the Sambia of New Guinea, as some people are accepted as females-then-males. However, contact with other cultures led to pathologizing gender diversity.
• Ovesey and Person's psychoanalytic perspective proposes family dynamics as a cause, suggesting separation anxiety in boys leads to a symbiotic relationship with the mother, resulting in a female gender identity. Research has revealed close mother-son relationships in individuals with gender dysphoria.