A01

• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
• What is andocentrism?

  Male-centred: when 'normal' behaviour is judged according to a male standard
• What is alpha bias?

  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women = theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other
• What is beta bias?

  A tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women
• What is universality?

  Aim to develop theories that apply to all people, despite differences of experience and upbringing
• What are 3 pieces of research which show alpha bias?

  1. Diagnosis of mental disorders

  2. Bowlby's theory of attachment

  3. Freud's theory of moral development
• How does the diagnosis of mental disorders show alpha bias?

  - Depression more likely to be diagnosed in women compared to men -> women are more open about problems and more likely to visit doctor for treatment

  - Just because males don't report symptoms doesn't mean they are not suffering from depression -> differences between sexes = exaggerated
• How does Bowlby's theory of attachment show alpha bias?

  - Mothers need to stay at home and care for children otherwise could damage children's social, cognitive and emotional development

  - Implies only mothers can fulfil this role -> reinforcing differences between sexes
• How does Freud's theory of moral development show alpha bias?

  - Freud = girls don't develop as strong a superego as boys as they face less pressure to identify with same sex parent (mother)

  - They blame mother for castrating them and have penis envy = greater identification with father

  - Leads to idea that women are inferior to men as are less morally developed than men (superego is responsible for moral conscious) -> exaggeration in differences between sexes
• What are three pieces of research which show beta bias?

  1. Asch and Milgram's social influences research

  2. The fight or flight response

  3. Kohlberg's research on moral development
• How does Asch and Milgram's research show beta bias?

  Used only male participants -> assumption made there would be no difference between male and female participants in terms of obedience and conformity and so can apply this data to females
• How does the fight or flight response show beta bias?

  - Early research conducted on male animals only - assumed would be true for females

  - This has been challenged - Shelley Taylor et al. (2000) found female biology has evolved to inhibit fight or flight response and adopt tend-and-befriend response = shift attention towards caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females
• How does Kohlberg's research on moral development show beta bias?

  - Research based mainly on male-orientated dilemmas, using male ptpts

  - Assumed no differences between men and women in terms of moral thinking -> wouldn't matter if only used male ptpts as responses could be applied to all
• Why should research avoid beta bias?

  Minimising differences between sexes could draw attention away from women's special needs such as parental leave for pregnancy
• What are some social implications of gender bias research?

  Could validate discriminatory practices against females e.g. in the workplace
• How can psychologists reverse alpha bias?

  To develop theories which show the differences between men and women, but that emphasises the value of women
• What is the Sociobiological theory

  • Wilson (1975)
  • Survival efficacy - males are hard wired to be promiscuous (to spread their genes)
  • Females are hard wired to nurture offspring
• Diagnosis of mental disorders showing alpha bias research

  Hare-Mustin and Maracek (1988) claim that much of the research and literature used in the DSM and ICD classifications to diagnose depression were written by male doctors and psychologists