Culture & Gender

• Culture can be defined as a set of beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that separates one group of people from another. Several aspects of gender identity and gender role can differ cross culturally.
• Gender identity can be shaped by cultural beliefs about masculinity and femininity, leading to variations in how individuals perceive and express their gender.
• Cultural norms and values influence the development of gender identity and the expectations placed on individuals based on their assigned sex.
• Gender roles can differ across cultures, with some societies having more rigid expectations for males and females, while others may have more fluid or non-binary gender roles.
• Different cultures can vary in their expectations of male and female behaviour. Western cultures recognise 2 gender roles; masculine and feminine.
• The stereotypes associated with masculinity and femininity can differ across different cultures.
• Gender is seen as a social construct, meaning that society creates many of the differences seen between males and females.
• Cultural research is carried out to show similarities between gender roles in different cultures and differences between cultures in stereotypical behaviours.
• Cross-cultural studies help to offer conclusions about whether biology or socialisation is responsible for gender roles.
• Mead (1935) studied the gender roles of cultural tribes in Papua New Guinea. She found the Arapesh tribe were gentle and responsive, similar to the stereotype of femininity. Whereas the Mundugumor tribe were aggressive and hostile, similar to the stereotype of masculinity.
• Mead (1935) suggested that gender roles maybe culturally determined, and there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender.
• Cross-cultural research offers a valuable contribution to our understanding of the nature versus nurture debate in gender development.
• Buss (1995) highlighted cross-cultural similarities in gender roles and found consistent patterns in mate preferences of males and females. Buss studied partner preferences across 37 countries and in all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness.
• Munroe & Munroe (1975) revealed that in most societies the division of labour is organised along gender stereotypical lines, with men typically taking the role of breadwinner and women the role of nurturer.
• When studying cross-cultural differences of gender development there are two different cultures to consider; traditional cultures and egalitarian cultures (where gender roles are more flexible and equal).
• Mead (1935) observed the behaviour of 3 tribes in Papua New Guinea and found interesting differences in gender roles compared to those in western society.
• Mead (1935) found the Tchambuli tribe of Papua New Guinea to have gender roles which were the reverse of those in western society. Women were more masculine and men were more feminine. This suggests that gender roles are culturally determined.
• LaFromboise et al (1990) found that in North American tribes, the roles of men and women did not always reflect western traditional roles. For example women would often take on aggressive roles and be involved in fighting.
• Talbani & Hasanali (2000) found South Asian girls growing up in Canada felt their families were disappointed if they didn't comply with the male dominated expectations of their society, suggesting cultural pressure may encourage gender behaviour.
• Some research argues that elements of gender roles and gender attitudes are universal concepts and do not vary cross-culturally.
• Williams & Best (1990) studied gender stereotypes in 30 countries and found universal attitudes towards masculinity and femininity.
• Gathering cross-cultural research can be problematic as some of the methods used to gather data from one culture are not necessarily applicable to another culture.
• Using gender-based questionnaires which are designed in western culture may make assumptions about the gender roles of those in other cultures. This results an ethnocentric bias.
• Cultural bias is an issue when studying gender development because most of the research is carried out in western society.
• Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of people from Papua New Guinea, looking at gender roles, following Mead’s research. He argued that her findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants and her preconceptions of what she would find influenced her reading of events.
• Freeman (1983) suggested that Mead's interpretations may not be objective and calls into question the conclusions she drew about cross-cultural variation in gender roles.
• Research suggests there are cultural differences in gender roles, which shows the effect of social factors however, it is equally important to consider biological influences.
• Cultural explanations of gender development are reductionist in that they fail to account for biological explanations.