Chapter 11 - The General War in Europe

• What was becoming clear to the Russian government by July 1914 and why?

  That its influence in the Balkans and its prestige as a Great Power were both at stake. This was due to their backing down in the Bosnian Crisis and not intervening in the Balkan Wars. Their role as "Protector of the Slavs" was also at stake
• What did this decline in Russian prestige cause Russia to consider?

  Many in the government, including Sazonov, felt they had little choice but to intervene, with the Tsar at first toying with only partial mobilisation, readying troops to fight AH only, in the hope of encouraging Germany to back down. 
• What did Russia do as a result of their declining prestige?

  As a result, a series of desperate telegrams were sent between Wilhelm and Nicholas, who were cousins, in attempt to persuade each other not to go to war - these are known as the Nicky and Willy telegrams
• How were Germany working to present themselves in the face of potential Russian mobilisation?

  As the victim of aggression - Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg instructed the German ambassador to Russia on 29th July to "Kindly impress on Sazonov very seriously that further progress of Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war would scarcely be prevented"
• What did Germany's instructions to Russia act as?

  This acted as Germany's ultimatum to Russia, that they would have to cease military prep or Germany would mobilise against them
• Who was Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg (1856-1921)?

  German Chancellor 1909-1917. Despite his role in preventing the escalation of the 1912-13 Balkan Wars, by 1914 he was deeply unpopular in Germany and lacked the authority to stop Germany's entry into war. Before and during the conflict, he clashed with Admiral von Tirpitz over naval armaments and submarine warfare. He resigned in 1917
• How did Russia respond to Germany's ultimatum?

  The generals asserted that only general mobilisation would give Russia a strong chance of victory against the Dual Alliance
• When did Russia mobilise its army?

  30th July 1914
• What did Russia believe its mobilisation would achieve?

  They hoped that it would act as a threat to Germany and saw it as a last diplomatic effort to maintain peace between the two states
• How did Germany view the Russian mobilisation?

  Wilhelm angrily criticised Nicholas for secretly readying armies while pressurising him to negotiate with AH. He saw the mobilisation as a declaration of war and claimed he had no choice but to declare war on Russia in response. 
• What did Wilhelm see Russian mobilisation as?

  The mobilisation suited the pro-war ministers and high command though as they had hoped to defeat Russia in a preventative war, and it also meant that Wilhelm could later blame Russia for the outbreak of conflict, releasing an official statement called "How Russia Betrayed Germany's Confidence"
• What is meant by the term "preventative war"

  A small scale, quick war planned to avoid a larger, longer one later on
• Why was a wider war in Eastern Europe looking more likely from 30th July 1914?

  Germany began to mobilise in response to Russia's actions, and the German army under Moltke (Chief of Staff) sent a telegram to the Austrian High Command to encourage them also to mobilise against both Russia and Serbia. 
• What did German mobilisation prompt?

  This prompted exasperation amongst Austrian government as Bethmann Hollweg had been encouraging AH military to scale down its attack on Belgrade, highlighting the confusion in AH over the struggle between military and civilian authority
• What happened on 31st July 1914?

  Emperor Franz Josef signed the order for AH's full mobilisation in prep for war against Russia
• How was power beginning to shift in Germany?

  After Germany's ultimatum to Russia on 29th July was disregarded, decision making power was slipping from the Chancellor and the Kaiser (who wanted to prevent the slide to war) and into the hands of the military. Moltke was aware that Germany's highly prepared Schlieffen Plan depended on his army maintaining the initiative and believed that any delay could be fatal
• What happened on 1st August 1914?

  Under great pressure from his generals, Wilhelm signed for general mobilisation and declared war on Russia
• Why were the people in Britain and France not interested in the Balkans?

  Newspapers barely reported the assassination or its consequences as both were more preoccupied with domestic concerns;
• Why were the people in France not interested in the Balkans?

  In France, the trial of the wife of the ex PM Joseph Caillaux for shooting the editor of Le Figaro captured public attention
• Why were the people in Britain not interested in the Balkans?

  In Britain, the growing militancy of the suffragettes and the increasingly volatile debate over Home Rule in Ireland consumed the government's agenda for weeks
• What did Britain attempt to do after the Austrian ultimatum?

  Grey attempted to mediate between the powers, and when AH began to mobilise against Serbia on 27th July, Grey called for a conference of the Great Powers, but both Germany and AH refused attendance
• Why was there debate over whether Britain should fight alongside France and Russia when war broke out?


  The agreements Britain had made with them did not compromise her freedom of action and Britain could remain neutral without backtracking on diplomatic commitments. 
• What did the secret 1912 Anglo-French Naval Agreement agree?

  The secret 1912 Anglo-French Naval Agreement committed the French to defending the Mediterranean in war against Germany while Britain would defend the North Sea and the French Atlantic Coast, but Winston Churchill reminded the French that it was not a firm military commitment. Britain would have to declare war on Germany before following this plan.
• What factor did Britain have to consider?

  A crucial factor for Britain to consider, though, was whether Germany would enact the Schlieffen Plan and invade neutral Belgium to evade France's strongest defences
• Who was Sir Winston Churchill (1874-1965)?

  A soldier before an MP in 1900. As First Lord of the Admiralty in ww1, he took responsibility for the 1915 Gallipoli disaster. a determined critic of appeasement, he was not a popular choice to replace Chamberlain in 1940 as PM, but his stirring speeches were credited with helping Britain win ww2
• What was France's stance if the war were to extend to German involvement?

  Under President Poincaré, it was already more directly involved if Germany decided to fight. It was committed to offer military support to Russia under the terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance 1894 and realised that Germany was likely to attack France if Germany and Russia went to war against each other
• Who was Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934)?

  Became President for 4th time in 1913. Visit to St Petersburg between 20-22nd July 1914 was scheduled before Franz Ferdinand's assassination, but Poincaré took the opportunity to reassure Nicholas II of French support. German propagandists later used that visit for their argument that the pair had plotted the escalation of the conflict, labelling it "Poincaré's War". He remained a key figure in French politics until his retirement in 1929
• What was Germany's ultimatum to France?

  Aimed to seem that Germany was acting defensively, not aggressively. Germany secretly had no intention of abandoning the Schlieffen Plan, but they demanded that France hand over their fortresses at Toul and Verdun on the border with Germany, until the defeat of Russia was completed. They also insisted that France should make no military prep of its own even though it was allied to Russia.
• How was Germany's ultimatum to France similar to AH's to Serbia?

  like to the AH ultimatum to Serbia, the demands on France were likely to be rejected - it was unthinkable that Germany would effectively be allowed to dictate French foreign policy. The Germans did not want France to resist if the Schlieffen Plan was to be successful - Germany needed France to be totally defeated, not placated to make war against Russia effective
• What happened on 3rd August 1914?

  France had ignored the ultimatum, so Germany declared war on France
• What did Germany do to keep up the pretence that they were fighting a defensive war?

  They claimed that French planes had bombed the city of Nuremburg
• How did the Schlieffen Plan change?

  They had already been altered since 1905, but the modifications made speed and the element of surprise more important. At the last minute, the Kaiser's nerve began to fail and he asked his military chiefs to alter their plans so they only attacked Russia and not France. It was, however, too late. The minute detail of planning could not be reversed
• When did Belgium declare its neutrality?

  24th July 1914
• What did the Belgian government do in spite of its neutrality?

  They mobilised their army and moved to defend its French and German borders in case it could not avoid involvement in the escalating crisis
• What happened on 2nd August 1914?

  The German ambassador in Brussels presented the Belgian FM with an ultimatum from Germany, demanding that the German northern army be allowed to march through Belgium to reach France unresisted
• How did Belgium respond to Germany's ultimatum?

  The cabinet met and discussed into the early hours and finally decided to reject the ultimatum, deciding instead to fight to defend their neutrality, meanwhile hoping that diplomatic efforts would be successful in avoiding a Western European war. 
• What was a consequence of Belgium's response to Germany's ultimatum?

  Consequently, King Albert of Belgium appealed to King George V of Britain for "diplomatic assistance", but to keep their commitment to neutrality, orders were given to the army to fire on any French and German troops who crossed their borders
• What happened on 4th August 1914?

  Schlieffen plan put into action and the Belgians resisted as planned. They were outnumbered by the German army 10:1, but placed hope in fortresses around the city of Liege. Huge German guns eventually overcame the Belgian defences
• How did Britain use the German invasion of Belgium as propaganda?

  Used the poor treatment of Belgian civilians by German soldiers as powerful propaganda, creating posters, the publication of first-hand testimonies and newspaper cartoons with slogans like "The Rape of Belgium" and "Once a German, always a German", giving Britain further justification for their involvement in the war as well as lending emotional appeal to its recruitment campaigns
• What had Britain and Germany promised in the 1839 Treaty of London?

  To defend Belgium's neutrality