Observations

• What is participant observation

  The researcher is actively involved with the group, but known to be researching. They collect mainly qualitative data. The aim is to understand what is happening from the point of view of those involved to understand the meaning that they give to their situation.
• Give an overt and covert example of participant observation

  • (overt) Stephen Lyng studied high risk groups (skydivers, and motorcyclist) to find out why they did it - he never hid the fact that he was an academic, but he joined in all the dangerous activities
  • (Covert) Amy Flowers got a job as a telephone worker and stood the way that women learn to mask their feelings when talking to clients. Neither employees or managers knew about her research.
• what is non-participant observation

  The researcher is detached and unobtrusive locker. This is necessary when the researcher is very different from those being researched because of their age or sex.. the level of participation that the search has differs depending on the type of observation they are doing
• Given an overt and covert, example of non-participant observation

  • (overt) Mirza studied two African Caribbean schools run by the African Caribbean community for their children. The researchers attended and observed the classes as well as using in-depth interviews
  • (covert) Humphrey studied homosexual activity in public toilets in the USA. He pretended to be a gay person and look out.
• what are the three main issues sociologists have when conducting a participant observation study

  • getting in
  • Staying in
  • Getting out
• (main issues sociologists have when conducting a participant observation study) getting in

  • Making Contact: this is my personal school, connections and opportunities. James Patrick was able to become friendly with Tim because he looked young.
  • The observers role: the observer should choose of all the offers a good advantage point and doesn’t disrupt the group normal behaviour (e.g Humphrey)
  • Acceptance: researcher needs to win the trust of the group to gain entry
• (main issues sociologists have when conducting a participant observation study) staying in

  There is danger of the researcher becoming too involved with the group, especially when it’s a covert role. This can lead to biased research and researcher is no longer objective.
• (main issues sociologists have when conducting a participant observation study) getting out

  It can be hard to re-enter a normal world after taking part in a research. Researchers may also find that the loyalty prevents them from fully disclosing, everything they have learnt, for fair that this might harm members of the group..
• (advantage of ppt observation) VALIDITY

  what people say they do when asked in the questionnaire, and what they actually do in real life aren’t always the same thing. by contrast by actually observing people we can obtain which qualitative data that provides a picture of how they really live.
• (advantage of ppt observation) FLEXIBILITY

  observation is much more flexible, because rather than starting with a fixed hypothesis, it allows sociologist to enter the situation with a relatively open mind about what they will find. The research discover things that other methods may miss.
• (disadvantage of ppt observation) PRACTICAL DISADVANTAGES

  • It is very time-consuming.
  • Research needs to be trained so that they are able to recognise aspects of the situation that are sociologically significant
  • Can be personally stressful and demanding
  • Requires observational and interpersonal skills that not everyone possesses.
  • Many groups may not wish to be studied in this way, and some have the power to make access difficult
• (disadvantage of ppt observation) ETHICAL PROBLEMS

  Covert participant observation, raises several ethical difficulties, including deceiving people in order to obtain information about them, and participating in illegal and immoral activities in the course of sociological research
• (disadvantage of ppt observation) REPRESENTATIVENESS

  in a participant observation studies, the group studied is usually very small, and the sample is often selected by chance. This does not provide a sound basis for making generalisations, therefore not completely valid to wider population
• (disadvantage of ppt observation) LACK of a CONCEPT of STRUCTURE

  structural, sociologists, such as Marxists and functionalists see PO as inadequate. They argue that because it focuses on the micro level of actors meanings., PO research tends to ignore the wider structural forces that shape our behaviour such as class inequality.

  In the structuralist view, seeing things through the actors eyes will never give us the complete picture
• (disadvantage of ppt observation) BIAS AND LACK OF OBJECTIVITY

  risk of becoming to involve makes it difficult to remain objective and sociologist may present a biased view of the group.

  Loyalty to the group, leads the sociologist to conceal sensitive information
• Give a summary of Griffins book ‘Black Like Me’


  he was a white journalist, who temporarily altered his skin colour to experience life as a black man in the racially segregated, USA. He underwent skin darkening treatments and travelled through states to document, the discrimination, racism and social injustice faced by black people.
• What are the problems Gryffin faced during the research?

  • Physical and emotional Toll (emotional distress and anxiety from the racism and health risks from the treatments)
  • Threat to his safety (faced violence and threats, and was harassed)
  • Ethical and moral dilemmas (struggled with the morality of deceiving people- worried whether it was disrespecting the black community)
  • Difficulty building trust (he had to work to gain trust within the black community)
• What are the opportunities griffin faced from the research?

  • Firsthand insight into racism. (Helped him understand the psychological impact.)
  • Increased credibility for his findings (made his account, more powerful and relatable to white readers + helped raised awareness)
  • Platform for change (his book became a tool for the civil rights movement - highlighted the need for social reform)
  • Understanding of racial solidarity (he gained a deeper appreciation for the resilience, strength and solidarity of the black community)
• What are the strengths of covert observations?

  • Reduces the risk of altering peoples behaviour. + the only way to gain valid data, this is particularly true, but people are engaged in activities that they would rather keep secret e.g Humphreys Tearoom Trade
  • Research can experience things that an outsider will not normally be able to access
  • Often the only way to observe a deviant or criminal group
• What are the limitations of covert observations?

  • Raises ethical issues
  • Researcher may be at risk if that identity is revealed
  • May not be able to ask the questions they would like to ask which reduces the validity of the findings
  • Research cannot take notes openly and must rely on memory, however, memory is often inaccurate
  • It is immoral to deceive people
• What are the strengths of overt observations?

  • It takes the viewpoint of the participants rather than researcher.
  • The observer can ask questions that a covert observer would not be able to
  • The observer can take notes openly without having to hide the situation or be worried about who sees it. This insures that they are not relying on memory, so increasing validity.
  • It is more ethical since they have not deceived the participants
• What are the limitations of overt observation?


  • Research as presents may change the behaviour of the group. E.g the Hawthorne effect, which undermines the validity of the researcher.
  • Research may be biased, so the data will not be a true representative of what is going on
• What is meant by the Hawthorne effect?

  When people change their behaviour because they know they are being observed
• Using observations to study education - (Structured PO) Practical Issues

  Sociologists often use the FIAC, to measure pupil, teacher interactions, and pupil pupil interactions. It is a standard chart of interactions with the research are simply record interactions every three seconds in one of the categories. This could be converted into quantitative data as sociologist note, the number of times each interaction has occurred.
• Using observations to study education - (Structured PO) Reliability

  It is likely to be easy to replicate and so is reliable. This is because the FIC makes it easy to replicate as it has pre-coded categories, so it is standardised making it possible to record the same interactions in the future.
• Using observations to study education - (Structured PO) Validity

  Lacks validity because the researcher is counting classroom interactions. Therefore it does not give a depth and insight. It ignores the meanings attached to the interactions.
• Using observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Practical issues

  • It is easy to gain permission, - the headteacher and sometimes the parents will need to give consent, but this is easily achieved.
  • Personal characteristics - the personal characteristics of the observer can be helpful or it can be a hindrance
  • Recording findings - researcher may find it difficult to find a quiet place to record observations
• Using observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Ethical Issues

  • Covert approach is not appropriate with children due to greet of vulnerability and limited ability to give consent means observation usually has to be overt
  • Sometimes the observing may witness criminal behaviour so has to have guilty knowledge, leaving them with a dilemma
• Using Observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Theoretical Issues - validity

  High validity as it gives an authentic understanding of the world views on social actors.
• Using Observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Theoretical Issues - Hawthorne Effect

  There are a few coveralls in schools so being covered is difficult. As most classroom observations are over the Hawthorne effect is likely since the presence of the researcher will impact pupil and teacher behaviour.
• Using Observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Theoretical Issues - Representativeness

  The size of the education system is fast, so making an observation representative is not possible. Most observations focus on a small number of pupils in a single single school.
• Using Observations to study education - (Unstructured PO) Theoretical Issues - Reliability

  Participant observations, lack, reliability, because data recording is on systematic and hard to replicate. The personal characteristics of the researcher may evoke different responses from the pupils and teachers.
• Advantage of ppt observation – Practical Advantages​

  • P: allows researchers to gain access to naturally occurring behavior in real-life settings.​
  • E: By directly immersing themselves in the environment, researchers can observe behaviors as they happen, rather than relying on self-reported data, so is useful for studying groups that may be difficult to access through other means.​
  • E: For eg, James Patrick’s covert participant observation allowed him to study the hidden world of gang culture - would normally be illegal
• Advantage of Ppt Observation: Insight​

  • P: provides deep insight into the lives and experiences of the group being studied.​
  • E: the researcher can develop a deeper understanding of the meanings, emotions, and interactions that shape participants’ behavior, which might not be revealed through other methods like questionnaires or interviews.​
  • E: For eg, Willis’ PO to study w/c boys in school, allowing him to uncover the reasons behind their anti-school attitudes. His close involvement enabled him to see beyond surface behaviors and understand their subculture from their perspective.​
• Disadvantage of ppt Observation – not reliable

  • P: lacks reliability.​
  • E: this method involves direct involvement in a specific social setting, it is difficult to replicate the study in the same way. The research is often unstructured, meaning different researchers may observe and interpret behaviors differently, leading to inconsistent findings.​
  • E: For eg, James Patrick conducted covert participant observation of a gang, but his personal experiences and level of involvement were unique to him.
  • L: This lack of standardization reduces the reliability of PO
• Disadvantage of Ppts Observation: Lacks Validity​

  • P: lacks validity.​
  • E:, their presence may influence participants' behavior, leading to artificial actions rather than genuine ones. Additionally, Researcher bias may shape the data collected.​
  • E: eg; Paul Willis’ (1977) w/c boys study- While his research provided valuable insights, the boys may have altered their behavior in his presence, exaggerating their rebellious attitudes or acting differently to align with how they wanted to be perceived.​
• Advantage of NON PO - Reliability​

  • P: reliability.​
  • E: the observations are more likely to be objective and standardized, making it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and achieve similar results.​
  • E: eg; Goffman used non-participant observation in his study of total institutions in Asylums. By observing patients in mental hospitals without directly engaging with them, Goffman was able to consistently record behaviors, providing a reliable basis for understanding institutional life.​
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• Advantage of non PO – High Validity

  • P: its validity.​
  • E: Since the researcher does not engage with the group being studied, the behavior observed tends to be more natural and uninfluenced by the researcher's presence.​
  • E: eg, Humphreys observed men engaging in homosexual acts in public restrooms without their knowledge. By remaining unobtrusive and not interacting with the participants, Humphreys was able to gather authentic, unaltered data on their behavior.​
• Disadvantage of non PO - Researcher Bias

  • P: researcher bias.​
  • E: Since the researcher is observing from a distance, their interpretations and analysis of the data may be influenced by their own perspectives, values, or expectations.​
  • E: eg; Humphreys' while observing men in public restrooms, Humphreys may have had preconceived notions about homosexuality that shaped how he interpreted the participants' behavior, even though he remained unobtrusive.​
  • L: This bias could affect the validity of the research findings