Accent and Dialect

• What does it mean by received pronunciation?

  It is a prestigious accent of British English, and often described as the accent of standard British English, particularly in formal settings
• Where did RP come from and when?

  Originated in the upper classes of southern England and become popular in the 19th century. It developed in the public schools and in elite social circles as a way for individuals to distinguish themselves from those with regional accents or dialect.
• What does received mean in RP?


  Refers to the idea of being accepted or approved by a particular group. It was suggested that RP was received as the correct or standard form of British pronunciation.
• Why did the BBC use of RP?

  BBC wanted to ensure its broadcast were understood by the wide as possible audience in the UK, as RP was seen as neutral and non-regionated, making it sound clear and formal to listeners across Britain.

  It was also seen as authoritative and prestigious fitting the BBC role as a national institution
• What are the linguistic features of RP??

  • non-rhoticity: in RP the ‘r’ sound is not pronounced at the end of words, ‘car’ is ‘cah’
  • Vowel sounds: RP has distinct vowel sounds that are often quite different from regional aspects. For e.g, vowel in ‘bath’ is pronounced like ‘ah’
  • Glottal stops: RP avoids the use of the glottal stop (they say butter properly)
• What is RP associated with?

  • education and elite social status as it was historically the accent of the upper class and public schools
  • Authority and power
  • Formality and prestige
• What are the negatives of RP?

  • Social elitism and classism. (it can give the oppression that you’re stuck up or posher than other people.)
  • Stereotypes of arrogance, or coldness (it can be perceived as being cold, distant or arrogant)
  • Lack of regional identity (it is seen as a neutral accent, meaning it doesn’t reveal where someone is from, people with RP, might be viewed as bland or lacking authenticity)
• How many percentage of the world uses RP now?

  2%
• Liverpool (scouse) 


  • glottal T stops
  • Dental fricatives, - the ‘t’ sounds in words like ‘bottle’ is replaced with a soft ‘r’ sound.
  • Lad = boy,
  • Scran = food
  • Scouse accent is sometimes perceived as untrustworthy or criminally due to media portrayals, it’s often harsh and difficult to understand.
  • But if the accent is closely tied to LFC, and Liverpool history, particularly in music
  • famous : TAA
• Newcastle (geordie)


  • glottal T stop
  • Monothongization- (sounds made up of 2 dowels simplified in 1) for e.g; ’house’ as ‘hoose’
  • Pet = type of endearment
  • Howay = let’s go
  • Some people see it as difficult to understand and it can be associated with w/c stereotypes, such as lack of education, or roughness, seen as heavy however, it is also seen as friendly warm and down to earth associated with its pride and loyalty
  • famous: Ant and Dec
• Scottish


  • Rhoticity - ‘r’ sound pronounced after vowels
  • Vowel shifts - ‘o’ sound in ’hot’ is ‘hoyt’
  • Aye = yes
  • Noo = Now
  • Some can be seen as harsh or aggressive
  • However, they are mostly seen as friendly, warm and trustworthy and they are associated with strength, bravery and resilience
  • famous: Lewis Capaldi (singer)
• Birmingham (Brummie)

  • vowel shifts - ‘bath’ is ‘Barth’
  • H dropping - in words like ‘house’ so it’s ‘ouse’
  • Owt = anything
  • Dunna = don’t
  • It has been voted one of the least attractive accents, and perceived as slow monotonous and unintelligent
  • However, it is now seen as friendly down to earth and relatable by some, and it reflects the cities working in class, roots and cultural diversity.
  • famous: Jude Bellingham (footballer)
• Northern Irish


  • Rhoticity (‘r’ sound pronounces strongly)
  • Glottal T stops
  • Bairn = Child
  • Gie = Give
  • Negatively people find it difficult to understand, and it has been associated with conflict and violence
  • But positively it is authentic and shows strong, cultural identity
  • famous: Seamus Heaney (poet)
• Welsh


  • Rhotic accent
  • Long Vowel - esp in words like ‘go’ and ‘no’
  • Gie = Give
  • Ken = know
  • negatively, it has been stereotyped as role or working class. It is seen as less formal or less intelligent and is often mocked.
  • Positively it is seen as musical and lyrical, and it is linked to strong national identity and cultural pride through poetry song and storytelling
  • famous: Tom Jones (singer)
• what is the cockney accent characterised by?

  • H dropping (‘..orrible ’ouse)
  • Glottal T stops (.bu’er)
  • L vocalisation - the tendency for ‘l’ at the end of the words to become ‘w’ (paul- pauw, milk - miwk)
  • Yod dropping (’noos’ for ‘news)
  • Use of the consonant sound ’j’ in place of ‘dy’ (’dune‘ - ‘june’, ’reduce’ - ‘rejuce’)
  • Dropping final consonant of word (e.g ‘abaa’ for ‘about’)
  • Th fronting - ’fanks’ rather than ‘thanks’
• What is cockney rhyming and why was it invented?

  A form of English slang where a phrase is replaced by a pair of words.

  It was invented to confuse outsiders as a social identity marker and show verbal creativity.
• Who speaks Cockney and who still uses it?

  it was spoken originally by cockneys.

  Older east Londoners, market traders and taxi drivers use it today
• Give some examples of cockney rhyming

  • apples and pears = stairs
  • Trouble and strife = wife
  • Butchers hook = head
  • Porky pies = lies
• How is Cockney today?

  Cockney accent and dialect is being replaced by MLE, however the migration of cockney to Essex, Hertfordshire and elsewhere has carried cockney to new areas resulting in a blended form known as Estuary English blurring the linguistic and geographic boundaries of cockney
• What is meant by Estuary English?

  Refers to a variety of English spoken in the southeast of England, particularly around the Thames Estuary area, though it has spread to other parts of the country. It is a blend of Received Pronunciation (RP) and regional accents, featuring features from both.
• what are the pronunciation features of Estuary English?

  • glottal T stops
  • Th fronting
  • L vocalisation
  • Yod Coalescence (use of consonant sound 'j' in place of 'dy' (eg; dune - june, reduce - rejuce)
• what is meant by dialect levelling?

  When different regional accents and ways of speaking become more similar to each other over time. This happens as people from different areas interact more, like through moving to cities or through the influence of media. As a result, features of local accents and dialects might fade, and people start using a more common, neutral way of speaking. For example, different pronunciations, words, or grammar from different regions can gradually blend into something that's understood by more people, making regional dialects less distinct.
• what are the reasons for dialect levelling?

  • Increased mobility - people moving around more
  • Urbanization - more people living in cities, they adopt speech patterns of the wider population which can be more neutral and less marked by local features
  • Media influence - spread of TV, radio and social media
  • Social interaction - people from diff regions interact frequently
  • Education - schools teach a more standard version of language
  • Desire for social acceptance - people may change their speech to fit in with certain social groups
• What is style shifting?

  The way people adjust their language based on the social context or the situation they are in, can involve changing formality, tone, accent, or even vocabulary. People shift their language style depending on who they are talking to, where they are, and what they are talking about.

  • EG: Someone might use more formal language in a job interview, but switch to informal language when chatting with friends.
• What is Covert Prestige?

  The valuegiven to non-standard language forms or dialects, typically associated with lower social classes. People who use slang, or use a regional dialect may be seen as more "authentic" or part of an in-group, gaining respect or admiration from others within their community, even if their speech is not valued by the broader society.

  • EG: , a person who speaks with a strong regional accent may gain covert prestige within their local area or among friends, as it shows loyalty to their roots or a sense of belonging,
• What is meant by overt prestige?

  the social status or respect that comes from using a standard or widely accepted form of language. Speakers who use overt prestige are often seen as more educated, authoritative, and socially accepted, especially in formal settings like education, government, and media. For example, people might adjust their speech to Standard English during a job interview to gain overt prestige.
• What is meant by prescriptive linguistics?

  An approach to language that focuses on establishing rules and standards about how language should be used. It involves judging language use as either correct or incorrect based on established norms, often favoring Standard English and formal grammar.

  Prescriptivists believe there are right and wrong ways to use language and aim to maintain traditional rules. For example, they might insist on using "whom" instead of "who" in certain contexts or oppose the use of slang or non-standard dialects.
• what is meant by descriptive linguistic?

  an approach to language that focuses on observing and analyzing how language is actually used by people, without making judgments about whether it is right or wrong. Descriptivists aim to describe language use as it naturally occurs, including variations in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and dialects. For example, they would view the use of double negatives like "I ain't done nothing" as an important part of certain dialects, rather than incorrect English.
• In summary what is meant by prescriptive and descriptive linguistics?

  • Prescriptive = Focuses on rules and correctness (how language should be used).
  • Descriptive = Focuses on how language is actually used without judgment.
• Explain Howard Giles ‘Matched Guise Technique’ experiment:

  10. Different accents were shown to 10 people. He found that BBC accent/RP was most liked, whereas the London (Cockney) accent was least liked.

  • He found that all the big cities come at the bottom because people associate the big cities with industrialisation pollution and w/c
• Explain Howard Giles - Capital Punishment experiment

  • five groups received an argument against capital punishment. 1 group had printed text. 4 groups had regional accent, oral presentation (RP, Somerset, Welsh and Birmingham)
  • RP was more adequate, Brum was least.
  • Persuasiveness was higher for regional accents, lowest for RP.
  • It highlights how RP is viewed as the prestige accent as associated with authority and expertise, whereas regional accent are in undervalued in formal settings but excel in emotional and persuasive appeal
• Howard Giles - Lecturer Experiment

  Lecturer met a group of 17-year-olds to give a psychology lecture. He said the lecture in RP, then in a Brummie accent.

  • RP Was rated highest for intelligence and authority.
  • Regional accent scored higher in types of liability and warmth. However, Brummie was rated, lowest for intelligence.
• Explain Worcester college - Police Interview

  Male actors, reproduced, police, interviews, they gave suspect a Birmingham accent. When people heard the plumy accent, they rated them as most guilty, lower class and lower intelligence.
• Explain Uni of Aberdeen - 2006 study

  Researcher told the same joke in different accents to 4000 people. Birmingham accent was the funniest, whereas RP was the least
• Explain COMRES study ITV 2013 - study

  Interviewed 6000+ people about their attitudes to different regional accent.

  28% of British people have felt discriminated due to their accent.

  Liverpool voted most unfriendly, unintelligent and untrustworthy.

  RP was most trustworthy
• What did Kevin Watson’s Dialect Island study show about Dialect Levelling?

  He examined how and why the Scouse Liverpool accent and dialect have resisted levelling that affects many other regional accents in the UK. he refers to it as a dialect island because its linguistic features remain distinct, even in the face of pressure from surrounding accents and dialects in the UK.

  • he found that Liverpool speakers demonstrated a strong attachment to their accent, which is tied closely to the cities, identity, w/c solidarity and pride.
• What is meant by MLE?

  It refers to a sociolect of English that emerged in London and is associated with young people from diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, particularly in urban areas.
• What are the key characteristics of MLE?

  • Lexis: Influenced by Caribbean, South Asian, and other global languages (e.g., words like bare meaning "a lot," mandem for "group of friends").
  • Phonology: Variations in vowel sounds and intonation patterns, often distinct from traditional Cockney or Received Pronunciation (RP).
  • Grammar: Simplification or variation in grammatical structures (e.g., "I was" replaced by "I were").
  • Influences: Drawn from a mix of ethnic backgrounds, including Jamaican Patois, West African languages, and South Asian languages, as well as Cockney.
• What research did Sue Fox do on MLE?

  Showed how it developed in London's diverse, multi-ethnic communities. She found that:

  • Social Networks: MLE use depends on social interaction, not ethnicity.
  • Linguistic Features: Includes vowel shifts, non-standard grammar, and slang (e.g., ends, wagwan).
  • Identity: MLE reflects urban youth culture and diversity but faces societal stigma.

  Her work highlights how language evolves through multicultural interaction.
• What are some accent features of MLE?


  • Th fronting 'bruvva'
  • Th stopping 'dat'
  • Reversal of 'h' dropping