Neural explanations

• Structures in the brain may be different in criminals as well as there being differences in neurotransmitter levels
• Pre frontal cortex - Raine - brain images of murderers and psychopaths, found low levels of activity in the prefrontal cortex. Prefrontal cortex is associated with morality and emotional regulation, low levels can lead to a loss of control and impulsivity
• Limbic system - Subcortical regions such as amygdala and thalamus. Raine - compared images of criminals that plead insanity to controls and found asymmetrical abnormalities. There was low levels of activity in the left hemisphere compared to the right, specifically the amygdala - which is associated with emotional regulation.
• Differences in these areas of the brain are involved in criminal behaviour:

  Pre frontal cortex

  Limbic system
• These neurotransmitters are involved in criminal behaviour:

  Serotonin

  Noradrenaline
• Serotonin - low levels may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour, partly because this neurotransmitter is involved in the functioning of the pre frontal cortex.
• Noradrenaline - Very high and very low levels are associated with aggression, violence, and criminality. High levels can activate the sympathetic nervous system, and then the fight or flight response. Noradrenaline then helps people react to perceived threats so low levels would also affect behaviour.
• NE AO3. There are issues with cause and effect in the neural explanation. We cannot be sure whether abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters are a cause or effect of criminal behaviour. There is only a correlation between head injuries and later criminality, it could be that someone growing up in a violent household or engaging in risky behaviour is more likely to receive a head injury, meaning that criminal behaviour would not be due to head injury, but violent childhood or preference for risk.
• NE AO3. There is real world applications for the neural explanation. This research could lead to possible treatment, for example if low levels of serotonin lead to increased aggression then people in prison could be given a diet increasing their serotonin levels and therefore decrease aggression. This shows benefit of this explanation.
• NE AO3. The neural explanation is based on research related to aggression rather than offending. Research on neurotransmitters is often based on non human animals. In such instances it is aggression and not criminality that is being looked at, which is the case for many human studies too. This undermines the relevance of the neural explanation, as not all crimes are violent.