10 Markers FH

• Outline and explain two reasons for the domestic division of labour between spouses [10 marks]

  The domestic division of labour refers to the roles that men and women play in relation to housework, childcare and paid work.1. One reason for this division is patriarchy, as society, and the family, is male dominated. This means that men and women remain unequal in the family. This is supported by feminist sociologist, Oakley (1974). She found that only 15% of husbands had a high level of housework, and only 25% had a high level of participation in child care. This means that women are more likely to do most of the housework and childcare, due to the patriarchal nature of the family and society.

  
  

  2. Another reason for the domestic division of labour is based on the biological differences between men and women. Functionalist sociologist Parsons (1955) argues that women are naturally suited to the nurturing role. This means that women have an expressive role that consists of primary socialisation of the children and domestic work, resulting in their role of homemaker. In comparison, men fulfil an instrumental role which means that he is the breadwinner and provides for the family financially. Based on this biological explanation, Parsons argues that the division of labour benefits men and women, their children and wider society
• Outline and explain two different reasons for the unequal division of labour [10 marks]

  The domestic division of labour refers to the roles men and women play in relation to housework, paid work and childcare.

  
  

  1. Point: One explanation for the gender division of labour is the cultural explanation.

  Explain: The cultural explanation examines how the division of labour is shaped by the patriarchal (a male dominated society) norms and values that shape gender roles in our culture.

  Evidence: Dunne (1999) observes that those in homosexual relationships have a more symmetrical relationship due to a lack of traditional gender scripts to follow.

  Analysis: This suggests that homosexuals create relationships that are equal and not oppressive, because they don't have deeply ingrained gender roles to conform to. By contrast, heterosexual relationships have to conform to these gender roles, women's roles have been socially constructed to carry out domestic work. Therefore, the division of labour exists because women have been socialised to do so, and it is a part of society's expectations.

  
  

  2. Point: The second reason for the unequal division of labour is the material explanation.

  Explain: The material explanation believes that the division of labour stems from the fact that women earn less than men so it is economically rational that women carry out the domestic work while the men spend their time earning money.

  Evidence: Sullivan found that working full-time rather than part-time makes the biggest difference in terms of how much domestic work each partner does.

  Analysis: This leads to a division of labour because in 7 out of 8 households, women still earn less than men and are more likely to work part-time due to childcare responsibilities. Therefore, women are still left with the bulk of the domestic labour due to lower earnings.
• Outline and explain two different views of the role of money on decision-making in households [10 marks]

  1. Point: One view is the material explanation.

  Explain: This argues that there has been a limited move towards equality in financial decision-making and control over resources, especially among dual income couples.

  Evidence: Laurie and Gershuny (2000) - found that by 1995, 70% of couples had an equal say in decisions, and women who were high earners and highly-professional were more likely to have an equal say.

  Analysis: This shows there has been some progress towards equality. It suggests that the role of money on decision-making in households is dependent on the financial income of the couple, and their financial dependency on each other. 2. Point: Another view is the personal life perspective.

  Explain: This view focuses on the meanings couples give to who controls the money, and this means that one partner controlling the money doesn't always mean there is inequality.

  Evidence: Smart (2007) - Homosexual couples didn't attach any meaning to who controlled the money.

  Analysis: This means that they did not see the control of money as inequality in the relationship. Additionally, same-sex couples don't carry 'heterosexual, cultured and historical baggage that sees money as a source of power'. As a result they don't believe money has an impact on decision-making.
• Outline and explain two ways in which women's involvement in paid work has affected family structures [10 marks]

  1. Point: Women's involvement in paid work has allowed them to gain more financial independence and this can impact family structures.

  Explain: Being involved in paid work allows women to be not be financially dependent on their husbands and they have more freedom to end an unsatisfactory marriage - which can lead to higher rates of divorce.

  Evidence: Allan and Crow - Marriage is less embedded within the economic system as the family is no longer a unit of production, spouses are less dependent on each other economically than before.

  Analysis: As a result, women do not have to tolerate conflict or absence of love, they can simply leave their marriage and still be able to support themselves and their children, perhaps leading to a rise in more lone parent families.

  
  

  2. Point: Women's involvement in paid work has allowed decision-making within the household to become more equal.

  Explain: Women are increasingly becoming less financially dependent on men and this allows them to more equality in decision-making.

  Evidence: Laurie and Gershuny (2000) - By 1995, 70% of couples said they had a an equal say in decision-making, particularly women who were high earners and well qualified professionals were more likely to have an equal say in decision-making.

  Analysis: This suggests that women have become more equal in the household and it shows a gradual shift away from the traditional patriarchal family structures to a more symmetrical family.
• Outline and explain two ways in which childhood will change as society changes [10 marks]

  1. Point: One way childhood is changing is by disappearing - also known as the disappearance of childhood.

  Explain: The disappearance of childhood viewpoint believes that children are becoming more like adults through notions such as the growing similarity of adults' and children's clothing and the disappearance of children's traditional unsupervised games.

  Evidence: Postman (1994) believes childhood is disappearing at a dazzling speed due to the emergence of global media.

  Analysis: As a result of global media such as the rise of TV and the internet has destroyed the 'information hierarchy'. This means that children can easily access 'adult' themes and are becoming less innocent and the dividing line between children and adults is fading and childhood is fading along with it, as well as adult authority.

  
  

  2. Point: As we enter a postmodern society - childhood is changing.

  Explain: A postmodern society is characterised by science and rational thought. Society now experiences a 'pick and mix' culture when deciding what suits their lifestyle and choices.

  Evidence: Jenks (2005) believes childhood is changing, not disappearing. Jenks believes as society is changing to a postmodern era, the pace of change speeds up and relationships are becoming more unstable.

  Analysis: These unstable relationships create feelings of uncertainty, and as a result parents are becoming more concerned with their relationships with their children as it provides them with a sense of stability. This leads to parents becoming more protective over their children and want to protect them from perceived dangers. Thereby allows childhood to be remain a separate status, children have legal and other restrictions placed on them to protect them and to keep them separate from adults.
• Item B


  Domestic violence accounts for up to a quarter of all recorded violent crime. Victims are more likely to be female and offenders male: domestic violence islinked to gender roles in patriarchal society.However, not all women are equally likely to suffer domestic violence. Victims - both female and male -are more likely to belong to disadvantaged social groups and live under difficult circumstances.Applying material from Item B, analyse two reasons for patterns of domestic violence [10 marks]1. Point: Item A suggests 'domestic violence is linked to gender roles in patriarchal society' - this can be linked to the Radical Feminist Explanation.

  Explain: The Radical Feminist Explanation emphasises the role of patriarchal ideas, cultural values and institutions has on domestic violence.

  Evidence: Millet and Firestone (1970) - All societies have been founded on a patriarchy and this is the key division in society between men and women - men are seen as the enemy as they oppress and exploit women.

  Analysis: Due to the patriarchal nature of families and marriages, widespread domestic violence is inevitable and serves to preserve the power men have over women.

  Evaluate: The Radical Feminist explanation fails to explain all cases of female violence such as: child abuse by women, violence against males and violence within lesbian relationships.

  
  

  2. Point: Item A suggests that victims 'are more likely to belong to disadvantaged social groups and live under difficult circumstances' - this can be linked to the Materialist Explanation.

  Explain: The Materialist explanation emphasises the role of economic factors such as lack of resources has on domestic violence.

  Evidence: Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) - Domestic violence is caused by stress on family members due to social inequality as some families have fewer resources than others.

  Analysis: Families with fewer resources are more likely to experience high levels of stress potentially due to overcrowded accommodation. These high levels of stress are caused by worries about money, jobs or housing, and these feelings of stress can spill into personal relationships and have the potential to turn into domestic violence.

  Evaluate: Ansley (1972) - Domestic violence is the product of capitalism because exploited male workers take out their frustration on their wives.
• Item D


  A popular view is that childhood is a fixed, universal, biological stage of physical and psychological immaturity that is common to all human beings. Everyone will pass through it on the way to biological maturity and adulthood. However, evidence shows that what counts as childhood,what experiences children undergoandwhat roles they play are far from universal.According to Item D, analyse two arguments against the view that childhood is a fixed universal stage [10 marks]1. Point: Cross-cultural differences in childhood demonstrate how children differ in what 'roles they play' (Item D).

  Explain: The Cross-cultural differences view looks at how children are seen and treated in other places and other cultures compared to the modern western view of childhood, and this suggests that childhood is not fixed or universal.

  Evidence: Punch (2001) - From the age of 5, children in Bolivia begin to take on responsibilities at work and in the home.

  Analysis: As a result of working from an early age, children in non-industrial societies become economic assets, but in comparison to modern western children, they have laws that restrict them from working and they become an economic liability that are dependent on adults.

  Evaluate: However, welfare agencies are attempting to globalise western norms of childhood and this suggests childhood could become a fixed universal stage.

  
  

  2. Point: The 'experiences children undergo' (Item D) differs between different time periods and this is known as Historical differences.

  Explain: This viewpoint believes that childhood is a new concept that has developed over time and is therefore not fixed.

  Evidence: Aries (1960) - In the Middle Ages, childhood didn't exist, once children passed the stage of physical dependency during infancy - they were treated like adults.

  Analysis - During the Middle Ages, children entered society on the same terms as adults , for example by taking on work at an early age. Aries used works of art to demonstrate children as 'mini adults' by giving children the same clothing as adults. Children were given the same rights and duties as adults.

  Evaluate: But, Pollock (1983) believes society simply had a different notion of childhood from today's society.
• Outline and explain two different views of the impact on paid work on the family [10 marks]

  The March of Progress view1.Point: Women going into work creates a more equal division of labourExplain: Men are becoming more involved with housework, roles are not identical but they are similarEvidence: Gershuny (1994) - Uses time studies and found that women in paid work did less domestic work compared to unemployed womenAnalysis: This shows that the 'new man' exists as men are putting in their fair share of domestic work and this is leading to the family becoming more equal.

  The Feminist view2.Point: Women going into work is actually creating a dual burden and in some cases a triple shift (Duncombe and Marsden)Explain: A dual burden refers to the situation where a woman has to juggle paid work and domestic work.Evidence: The British Social Attitudes Survey - found that on average men did 8 hours of domestic work a week, whereas women did 13 hours of domestic work per week which is almost double the amount of work.Analysis: This highlights inequality within the family and this actually has a negative impact on women - both mentally and physically. As a result she has to take part in emotional work.
• Outline and explain two different functionalist beliefs on the family [10 marks]

  Functional Fit Theory1.Point: One functionalist belief is the Functional Fit Theory.Explain: This belief says that the functions of the family impacts its shape/structure and the two types of family structure are: nuclear and extended families.Evidence: Parsons (1955) - Pre-industrial society requires the extended family, but modern industrial society requires the nuclear family.Analysis: The nuclear family is geographically mobile, as they are easier to move than extended families and they are socially mobile because they are structurally isolated from extended kin which can lower tensions.

  The Loss of Functions2.Point: Functionalists believe the family has lost some of its functions (also known as structural differentiation)Explain: After the industrial revolution, the family is no longer a unit of production - it has lost most of its functions to other institutions like schools and the health service.Evidence: Parsons believes that the nuclear family still fulfil two essential functions: the primary socialisation of children and the stability of adult personalitiesAnalysis: This allows the family to equip children with basic skills and society's values and the family becomes a place of relaxation to release tensions from work.
• Item A

  Capitalist society is based on a wealthy capitalist class exploiting the labour of a property-less working class in order to extract a profit. However, to obtain their profit, capitalists must see what has been produced and this requires people who are willing to buy it. For capitalism to continue, the proletariat must be persuaded to accept their exploitation. Capitalists also need to retain control of their wealth in order to maintain their privileged position.Applying material from Item A, analyse two functions that the family may perform for capitalism [10 marks]1. The inheritance of private propertyPoint: One function that the family performs for capitalism is the inheritance of private property.Explain: Originally, society was founded on primitive communism and this meant that the means of production was owned by all members of society jointly. As society developed, society's wealth began to increase and men were able to secure 'control' (Item A) of the means of production.Evidence: Engels - Argues this change resulted in the surface of the patriarchal, monogamous family because of the inheritance of private property.Analysis: This kind of structure meant that men had to be certain they had paternity of their children to make sure the wealth can be inherited. This allows the ruling class to retain ownership and control of the means of production.Evaluate: However, Marxists assume that the patriarchal monogamous nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society. But, they fail to see the wide variety of family structures found in today's society.

  2. A unit of consumptionPoint: Another function that the family performs for capitalism is its role as a unit of consumption.Explain & Analyse: The capitalists exploit the 'labour of a property-less working class in order to extract a profit' (Item A). Capitalists make a profit by paying workers low wages and selling the products they make at higher prices. The family play a major role in generating profits for capitalists through the sales of consumer goods and this allows the ruling class to maintain their control and ownership of the means of production along with the exploitation of the working class.Evidence: Marxists argue that this is achieved in three ways. Firstly, by advertising which urges families to consume the latest products. Secondly, through 'pester power' of children, the media targets children as they know they have power to convince their parents to buy products. Thirdly, children who lack the most up-to-date items are vulnerable to stigmatisation.Evaluate:However, functionalists argue that Marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members, such as caring parents who teach their children the beneficial beliefs and values of society.
• Outline and explain two reasons for changes in the size of families and households in the last 50 years or so [10 marks]

  1. Changes in the position of womenPoint: One reason for changes in the size of families and households is the shift in women's positionsExplain: Particularly, women have better access to paid work and equal opportunities within the education system provided by the National Curriculum.Evidence: Harper (2012) - Women's education is the most important reason for the long-term decrease and birth and fertility rates. She also notes that cultural norms about family size has changed and smaller families are more widely accepted.Analysis: This suggests there is a change in mindset amongst women, they are beginning to plan their lives and putting their careers before having children and this causes a significant change in family sizes.

  2. Children have become economic liabilitiesPoint: Another reason for changes in the sizes of families and households is the change in economic status of children.Explain: During the 19th century, children were seen as economic assets as they could go out to work and earn, however this isn't the case anymore.Evidence: For example, in 2008 the school leaving age was extended to 17 years old.Analysis: Extending the school leaving age and banning children from carrying out paid work allows children to remain economically dependent on their parents. Norms are also changing, children expect more from their parents in material terms. As a result, parents often have less children as they cannot cope with the added financial pressures, and the family size decreases.
• Item I


  The different cultural traditions, migration patterns and economic circumstances of different minority ethnic groups are reflected in the ethnic differences in family and household patterns seen in the United Kingdom today. These include differences in the proportions of people from different ethnic groups who live in single person, nuclear family,lone-parentandextended family households.Applying material from Item I, analyse two reasons for ethnic differences in family and household patterns [10 marks]1. Point: Immigration has contributed to a rise in 'lone-parent' (Item I) families.

  Explain: Black Caribbean and Black Africans have a higher proportion of lone-parent households usually headed by a lone mother.

  Evidence: In 2012, just over half of all families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone-parent families.

  Analysis: The high rate of lone-parent black families led by females can be seen as evidence of family disorganisation which can be traced back to slavery or high rates of male unemployment amongst black males. It was found when placed under slavery, couples were separated, and children stayed with their mothers which may explain the modern-day family pattern among black people. Equally, high levels of male unemployment made black men less able to provide for their family which often resulted in marital breakdowns or desertions.

  Evaluate: But Reynolds argues that the statistics are misleading, many of these lone parents may be in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships.

  
  

  2. Point: Immigration has also contributed to a rise in 'extended family households' (Item I).

  Explain: Extended households contain three generations or more. Asian families tend to contribute to this rise in extended family structures.

  Evidence: Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups at: 4.4, 4.3 and 3 persons per household respectively, compared with 2.4 for both Black Caribbean and White British households.

  Analysis: These larger households are often a result of the younger age profile of British Asians, a higher proportion of them are in the childbearing groups compared with the population as a whole. To some extent, these larger households are present because Asian cultures regard the extended family highly as a source of support.

  Evaluation: However, over time Asian households have become more nuclear as opposed to extended and relatives often live nearby to deliver the same source of support.
• Outline and explain two functions that functionalist sociologists see the family as performing [10 marks]

  1. Point: One function that the family performs is the socialisation of the young.

  Explain: The nuclear family carries out the primary socialisation of children during the early years of their life.

  Evidence: Parsons outlines two essential functions that the family carries out: the socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult personalities.

  Analysis: For functionalists, primary socialisation is crucial to ensure a value consensus. Children are equipped with basic skills, norms, values and attitudes which allows them to co-operate with others and integrate into society cohesively. Furthermore, it keeps society harmonious and ensures society's culture is maintained.

  
  

  2. Point: Another function that the family performs is providing economic needs for its members.

  Explain: The family provides its members with resources such as food and shelter which is essential for survival.

  Evidence: This is supported by Murdock, he suggests the family carries out four core functions: satisfied sex drives, reproduction, primary socialisation and economic benefits.

  Analysis: Children require adult economic support and protection for a long period of time. As a result, parents partake in productive paid work to provide for their children, not only does this benefit the family but it also benefits society as a whole by boosting economic activity.
• Outline and explain two reasons for the increase in the divorce rate since the 1960s [10 marks]

  1. Point: As society changes, expectations and norms change. A potential reason for the increase in divorce rates is due to rising expectations within marriages.

  Explain: This is linked with ideology changes.

  Evidence: Functionalist Fletcher proposes that the higher expectations people place on marriage is a major cause of rising divorce rates.

  Analysis: The ideology of romantic love has become more dominant. It suggests that marriage should be founded on love and if the love dies, spouses can divorce in hope of finding their new soulmate. This is a stark contrast to the past, traditional families were a unit of production and marriages were bound upon economic dependency and duties. Consequently, couples were more likely to tolerate a lack of intimacy due to their low expectations unlike today's society. Today marriage is no longer seen as a binding contract but as an act of personal fulfilment which can increase the chances of divorce if individuals are unsatisfied.

  
  

  2. Point: Another potential reason for the increase in divorce rates is due to the improvement of the financial position of women.

  Explain: Women have gradually become less financially dependent on men and this grants them freedom to end unsatisfactory marriages.

  Evidence: This is supported by Allan and Crow, they argue that 'marriage is less embedded within the economic system'.

  Analysis: This implies that the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are no longer dependent on one another financially. Through better educational opportunities, women have access to their own source of income which allows them to not tolerate tense marriages or the absence of love, they can choose to seek out divorce whilst being able to support themselves economically.
• Item Z


  Families are changing dramatically in the contemporary UK. Divorce rates are high, marriage rates are low, and more people are cohabitating rather than getting married. There are more lone parent families than ever, and nearly half of births are now outside marriage. More people than ever are choosing to live alone.Applying material from Item Z, analyse two reasons why the family in Britain is in decline [10 marks]1. Point: One reason the family is in decline is due to 'more people than ever choosing to live alone' (Item Z).

  Explain: Fewer people today are living in couples are opting for a different way of living.

  Evidence: In 2013, almost 3 in 10 households contained only one person, which is nearly 3 times the figure for 1961.

  Analysis: The decline in marriage and the rise in later marriages, means that many adults are remaining single. Many of these adults are living alone. It can be implied that many of these adults are opting for a 'creative singlehood', which is the deliberate choice to live alone. On another note, the increase in separation and divorce particularly among older men has created more one-person households. This is because after divorce, many children are more likely to live with their mother rather than their father.

  Evaluation: Even though some may choose to live alone by choice, some are forced to live alone, most likely due to not finding a suitable partner in their age group such as retired widows.

  
  

  2. Point: Another reason the family is in decline is due to an increase in 'lone-parent families' (Item Z).

  Explain: The number of lone-parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation and due to the increase in never-married women having children.

  Evidence: One in 4 children live in a lone-parent family and over 90% of these families are headed by lone mothers.

  Analysis: A reason for this change may be linked to a decline in stigma attached to births outside of marriage. But, many lone-parent families are female headed because they are single by choice. These women may choose to not cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the father's interaction with the child. Revoize found that professional women are particularly able to support their children without their father, which provides them with freedom. Greater opportunities for women both in education and the job market has meant that they aren't tied down to unhappy relationships due to economic dependency.

  Evaluation: Cashmore found that some working class women with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner sometimes because of an abusive partner.
• Item U


  Feminist approaches to the family tend to emphasise the harmful effects of family life upon women. They provide a healthy antidote to functionalist and New Right accounts, which stress the functional and beneficial side of family life, and downplay the way families may have negative consequences for the lives and opportunities of women.Applying material from Item U, analyse two feminist views of our understanding of the family [10 marks]1. Point: One feminist viewpoint of the family is the Radical Feminist viewpoint.

  Explain: Radical feminists see the family and marriage as patriarchal institutions, and they examine 'the harmful effects' placed upon women (Item U) in relation to these institutions.

  Evidence: Greer argues that the creation of all female or 'matrilocal' households can be an alternative to the heterosexual family.

  Analysis: This is because many radical feminists believe the patriarchal system needs to be overturned, and this can be achieved by the idea of separatism. Thus if women can live independently, they avoid the main source of oppression and exploitation from their unpaid domestic work and sexual services. Similarly, the also avoid the possibility of domestic or sexual abuse by living independently.

  Evaluation: Although, this idea is limited. Somerville believes that heterosexual attraction is inevitable and it makes the idea of separatism hard to implement.

  
  

  2. Another feminist viewpoint is the Marxist Feminist viewpoint.

  Explain: Marxist feminists believe that capitalism has 'negative consequences for the lives and opportunities of women' (Item U).

  Evidence: Ansley argues that women absorb the anger of men that would be directed at capitalism.

  Analysis: Additionally, Marxist feminists believe that women are a reserve of cheap labour that can be taken on when extra workers are needed, and when no longer needed they can return to their unpaid domestic labour. It is also believe that women reproduce future labour forces by socialising the next generations of workers and maintaining the current generation. As a result, Marxist feminists argue the main cause of women's oppression within the family is the exploitation of the working class. In order to solve the problem, they believe the family must be abolished and replacing capitalism with a socialist revolution along with a classless society.

  Evaluation: However, it can be argued that women's oppression within families still exists in communist societies and this ignores aspects of the family such as domestic abuse in non-capitalist societies.
• Item M


  There have been many significant changes in family patterns in the last few decades. These include changes in attitudes towards many aspects of family life. At the same time, there have been changes in wider society affecting men and women, for example in the labour market, education and laws relating to the family. Some sociologists argue that relationships have become more unstable as a result of all these changes.Applying material from Item M, analyse two reasons for changing patterns of marriage in recent decades [10 marks]1. Point: One reason for the changing patterns in marriage is related to the improvement of women's opportunities.

  Explain: The opportunities open to women 'in the labour market' (Item M) and education have improved over time and this has influenced decisions related to marriages.

  Evidence: This is supported by Allan & Crow, they believe 'marriage is less embedded within the economic system'.

  Analysis: In recent decades, the improved educational opportunities have gained women access to higher paying jobs. The family is no longer a unit of production, where members rely on each other. This means spouses are no longer reliant on each other economically. As a result, women don't have to rely on men financially because they have their own source of income to support themselves. Therefore, they don't feel the need to marry.

  Evaluation: But women may still experience a gender pay gap and discrimination in the workplace and may still need to rely men financially.

  
  

  2. Point: Another reason for the changing patterns in marriage is related to 'changes in attitudes' (Item M).

  Explain: There has been a decline in stigma related to cohabitation. Cohabitation involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.

  Evidence: There are 2.9 million cohabitating couples in Britain. About one in eight adults are now cohabiting, which is double the number in 1996.

  Analysis: This suggests there is a decline in stigma attached premarital sex. Having children outside of marriage has become more accepted in society, and there is no need for a 'shotgun wedding' anymore. This may be due to secularisation (the decline of religion's influence), the church's influence over marriages have declined and people feel freer to choose not to marry. Similarly, the increased career opportunities for women may mean they don't desire financial security and are freer to opt for cohabitation instead of marriage.

  Evaluation: However, Chester argues cohabitation is a part of the marriage process, instead of replacing marriage.
• Outline and explain two changes in society which have contributed to the increase in single person households [10 marks]

  1. Point: The average age of the UK population is rising; this means there are fewer young people and more old people.

  Explain: One societal change that has contributed to the increase in single person households is an increase in the ageing population.

  Evidence: One-person pensioner households account for about 12.5% of all households.

  Analysis: The number of pensioners living alone has increased. These pensioners tend to be female, both because women generally live longer and because they are usually younger than their husbands. Therefore, as the average age of the population is increasing and many pensioners are living alone, there is a greater number of single person households, often occupied by widows.

  
  

  2. Point: Since the 1960s, there has been a great increase in the number of divorces in the UK.

  Explain: The decline in marriage and the rise in divorce has created more single person households.

  Evidence: It is believed by 2033, over 30% of the adult population will be single

  Analysis: The increase in separation and divorce has meant more people are living alone, and this is usually men. This is because, after divorce, the children involved are more likely to live with their mother and the father is more likely to leave the family home. Additionally, there is a growing number of adults opting for a 'creative singlehood' which is the deliberate choice to live alone. There is also an increase in more diverse relationships like LATs, perhaps for practical reasons like financial problems or actively choosing to live apart. This suggests, that changes in marriage, divorce and relationships are contributing to the increase in single-person households.
• Outline and explain two ways in which the ageing population may contribute to family diversity [10 marks]

  1. Point: The average age of the UK population is rising; this means there are fewer young people and more old people.

  Explain: The ageing population results in an increase in single person households.

  Evidence: One-person pensioner households account for about 12.5% of all households.

  Analysis: The number of pensioners living alone has increased. These pensioners tend to be female, both because women generally live longer and because they are usually younger than their husbands. Therefore, as the average age of the population is increasing and many pensioners are living alone, there is a greater number of single person households, often occupied by widows.

  
  

  2. Point: The ageing population may increase the amount of extended families

  Explain: The beanpole family may particularly be on the increase as a result of the ageing population.

  Evidence: Brannen notes there is an increase in the number of four-generational families which include great-grandparents and great-grandchildren.

  Analysis: Those within the ageing population may feel they cannot afford to live on their own and may choose to live with their family as a part of a multi-generational home. However, it may also be due to grandparents wanting to spend more time with their grandchildren. Similarly, many relatives still feel a sense of obligation to help their wider extended kin. This may explain why daughters tend to take care of ill elderly relatives and serves as another potential reason why elderly relatives may live in a multi-generational family. Therefore, as the ageing population increases the number of extended families may increase.
• Outline and explain two ways in which greater life expectancy has affected the diversity of families and households [10 marks]

  1.Point: As death rates have fallen, life expectancy has increased.Explain: Life expectancy refers to how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live. Greater life expectancy can lead to an increase in single person households.Evidence: One-person pensioner households account for about 12.5% of all households.Analysis: The number of pensioners living alone has increased. These pensioners tend to be female, both because women generally live longer and because they are usually younger than their husbands. Therefore, as the life expectancy is increasing and many pensioners are living alone, there is a greater number of single person households, often occupied by widows.

  2.Point: Greater life expectancy may increase the amount of extended familiesExplain: The beanpole family may particularly be on the increase as a result of greater life expectancy.Evidence: Brannen notes there is an increase in the number of four-generational families which include great-grandparents and great-grandchildren.Analysis: A direct demographic change that influences the increase of beanpole families is increased life expectancy. This means there are more surviving grandparents and great-grandparents. Similarly, many relatives still feel a sense of obligation to help their wider extended kin. This may explain why daughters tend to take care of ill elderly relatives and serves as another potential reason why elderly relatives may live in a multi-generational family. Therefore, as the average life expectancy increases the number of extended families may increase.
• Outline and explain two reasons why there is an ageing population in the United Kingdom today [10 marks]

  1. Point: One reason for an ageing population is due to the decrease in death rates.

  Explain: One way the death rates have decreased is due to medical improvements.

  Evidence: By-pass surgery and other developments have reduced deaths from heart disease by one-third.

  Analysis: Similarly, improvements in medicine such as: antibiotics, immunisations, blood transfusions, improving maternity services and the establishment of the National Health Service meant that deaths from diseases were minimised and therefore people are living to older ages by having protection from deathly diseases. As a result, there is an ageing population because lifespans have been extended (which would have otherwise been shortened) through medical and technological improvements.

  
  

  2. Point: Another reason for an ageing population due to a decrease in the infant mortality rate (IMR).

  Explain: The IMR measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive each year.

  Evidence: Harper suggests that a fall in IMR leads to a fall in the birth rate.

  Analysis: Certain social developments like increased sanitation, better nutrition of mothers, better knowledge of hygiene and improved services for mothers and children meant that people were more knowledgeable about their health and their children's health and take precautions to extend lifespans. The fall in IMR means children are living longer to make it to old age.
• Outline and explain two changes in society which may have contributed to women's changing roles within families [10 marks]

  1. Point: The spread of feminist ideas may have contributed to women's changing roles within families, in particular Liberal feminism.

  Explain: Schools of thought like Liberal feminism are involved with ensuring gender equality within society. They actively challenge sex discrimination and equal pay rights. They hold a 'march of progress' view towards gender equality.

  Evidence: Liberal feminists believe that women's oppression is being gradually overcome through changing people's attitudes and through changes such as the Sex Discrimination Act (1975).

  Analysis: This change in attitudes suggests that we are moving towards greater gender equality, this equality will depend on reforms in attitudes and socialisation patterns of the sexes. Progressively, the way parents socialise their children is more equal than it has been previously and parents are beginning to have unified aspirations for their children. This means, women are encouraged to follow similar career paths as men. Additionally, it's believed that men are doing more domestic labour and the domestic division of labour is becoming more equal which allows the burden to not be placed completely on women, therefore women's roles are changing within the family, they are no longer seen as just domestic workers.

  
  

  2. Point: The position of women has improved in regards to decision-making within the household.

  Explain: Over recent decades, women are becoming more involved in paid work and this has impacted their role on decision-making.

  Evidence: Laurie and Gershuny found that 70% of couples believed they had an equal say in decision-making, and women who were high earners and professionals were more likely to have an equal say.

  Analysis: This shows that the traditional expressive role women had has broken down. As a result, women are now taking on an instrumental role and are beginning to earn for the family. Traditionally, the power to make decisions relied on men because they had economic power over women. This simply isn't the case anymore; women are earning a proportion of income meaning they can have a say in decisions. This demonstrates a move towards equality in the family, and women's roles have changed as a result.
• Outline and explain two changes to partnerships that have influenced families and households [10 marks]

  1. One change to partnerships is the increase in same-sex relationships, this is due to the passing of the Civil Partnership Act in 2004, which gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples. Increased social acceptance of same-sex relationships has influenced families and households. Weeks (1999) suggests that same-sex couples can partake in choosing their families. This means that homosexuals can create families based on the idea of 'friendship as kinship', which offers the same security and stability as heterosexual families and has therefore impacted families and households.

  
  

  2. Another change to partnerships is the increase of more diverse relationships such as LATs (living apart together). The increase of LATs is has influenced families and households by increasing the number of one-person households. Duncan and Phillips found that 1 in 10 adults are living apart but together, which means they are in significant relationship, but they are not married or cohabitating. This implies there is a trend towards less formalised relationships in favour of families of choice.
• Item A

  Sociologists Crompton and Lyonette (2008) identify two different explanations for the unequal division of labour. Some sociologists believe that equality will only be achieved when norms about gender roles change. Others argue that if women join the labour force and earn as much as their partners, there should be move towards men and women doing more equal amounts of domestic work.Applying material from Item A, analyse two explanations for the gender division of labour [10 marks]The domestic division of labour refers to the roles men and women play in relation to housework, paid work and childcare.

  
  

  1. Point: One explanation for the gender division of labour is the cultural explanation.

  Explain: The cultural explanation examines how the division of labour is shaped by the patriarchal (a male dominated society) norms and values that shape 'gender roles' (Item A) in our culture.

  Evidence: Dunne (1999) observes that those in homosexual relationships have a more symmetrical relationship due to a lack of traditional gender scripts to follow.

  Analysis: This suggests that homosexuals create relationships that are equal and not oppressive, because they don't have deeply ingrained gender roles to conform to. By contrast, heterosexual relationships have to conform to these gender roles, women's roles have been socially constructed to carry out domestic work. Therefore, the division of labour exists because women have been socialised to do so, and it is a part of society's expectations.

  Evaluate: However, Warde and Hetherington found that there is a slight generational shift in attitudes among younger men, they no longer assumed that women should do the housework, and were more likely to do their fair share.

  
  

  2. Another explanation for the gender division of labour is the material explanation.

  Explain: The material explanation believes that it's economically rational for women to stay at home because they don't 'earn as much as their partners' (Item A).

  Evidence: Sullivan found found that working full-time rather than part-time makes the biggest difference in terms of how much domestic work each partner does.

  Analysis: This leads to a division of labour because in 7 out of 8 households, women still earn less than men and are more likely to work part-time due to childcare responsibilities. Therefore, women are still left with the bulk of the domestic labour due to lower earnings.

  Evaluate: But, Laurie and Gershuny (2000) found that by 1995, 70% of couples believe that they had an equal say in decision-making particularly women who were high earners and well qualified. This shows there is a move towards equality.