Experiments

• What are lab experiments?

  Involve a non-natural artificial setting for participants. They take place in controlled conditions, where the IV is manipulated to see the effect of the DV which is measured.
• Give an education example of lab experiments

  As sociologist investigates the effect of labelling on the achievement of students. They set up an experiment in which they tell students that they expected performance grade. Half of the students were told that they should achieve a grade D and the other half are told that they should achieve a grade A. Students are given the same task to complete.
• Strength of laboratory experiment: Reliable

  Positive fever, the laboratory experiment because it achieves their main goal of the reliability. Careful control over experimental conditions and experimental dettachment produces reliable data because other researchers can replicate the experiment.
• Strength of laboratory experiment: Cause and Effect Relationships can be established

  It allows the researcher to identify and measure behaviour, patterns quantitively, and to manipulate variables to establish cause and effect relationships
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Artificial situation

  Laboratories simplify any social interaction, so what happened, may have a little relevance to the real world (validity problem)
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Small Scale

  Experiments can only be carried out on a small sample and for a short time, so the results are less representative than other studies, such as surveys which can use larger samples
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Demand characteristics

  If the participants in an experiment know what has been done, they may not act as they usually do, making a validity problem. If people know they are being studied, they may behave differently, for example by trying to second-guess what the researcher wants them to do an acting accordingly. This will ruin the experiment which depends on the participant responding to the variables that the research are introduces into the situation not to the fact that they are being observed
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: The Hawthorn effect

  Discovered by Mayo who set up experiments to identify which environmental variable affected the output of a team of workers. They concluded that the key was that the employees were responding to the fact that they were being researched, and they were pleased to be the centre of attention.
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Unethical

  If the participants are misled about the nature of the experiment, they cannot give informed consent. This is a especially problematic when it comes to obtaining consent from groups, such as children or people with learning difficulties who may be unable to understand the nature and purpose of the experiment.
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Lack of validity

  It is not possible for a researcher to control all the variables that might affect the subjects behaviour (the mood state of health, the feelings about the whole experience) therefore reducing the validity of the findings
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiment: Interpretivists

  Sociologist such as interactionist argue, that human beings have free will consciousness and choice. This means our behaviour cannot be explained in terms of cause-and-effect. Therefore, the experimental method is not an appropriate method for studying human beings.
• What are field experiments?

  Experiments conducted in real-world settings, manipulating independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables.
• Give an example of a field experiment study

  Jacobson studied ‘Pygmalion in the classroom’.

  Gave elementary children an IQ test and then informed their teachers which children were going to be average and which were going to be ‘bloomers’. Found that teachers didn’t expect too much from the average children, and gave all the attention to the bloomers. Results had shown that bloomers IQ scores had risen significantly higher than the average students, even though they were chosen at random. Experiment shows that teacher expectations worked as a self fulfilling prophecy.
• Weaknesses of field experiment: lack of control

  It is harder to control extraneous variables, and therefore the findings are less certain. We cannot be sure that observed changes in the DV were due to the action of the IV. This means that the experiment may lack internal validity
• Weaknesses of field experiment: Lacks representativeness

  Sampling techniques tend to be biased because opportunity sampling is usually used and not everyone in the population has an equal chance of taking part so generalisability is reduced
• Weaknesses of field experiment: More expensive and time-consuming


  They are more expensive and time-consuming, because of going into environment and transporting equipment
• Weaknesses of field experiment: Unethical

  Lack of informed, consent and debriefing and invasion of privacy, which are easily bleached within field experiments
• advantages of field experiment: Cause an effect relationship

  Field experiments can identify cause-and-effect relationships because there was an IV and a DV which are manipulated during the experiment
• advantages of field experiment: valid

  For the conducted in a more natural surrounding, therefore, it may be generalisable to be a life and it’s more ecologically valid
• advantages of field experiment: experimenter bias

  Infield experiments that are less problems with experimental bias, because participants are often not aware that they are in an experiment. So demand characteristics are low.
• What is meant by the comparative method?

  Is only carried out in the mind of the sociologist. It is a 'thought' experiment and does not involve the researcher actually experimenting on real people at all. where sociologists compare two or more groups, societies, or situations to identify patterns, similarities, or differences.
• Give an example of a Comparative Method study: (Durkheim)

  He compared suicide rates across variables like religion (e.g., Catholics vs. Protestants), marital status, and military vs. civilian populations. By identifying patterns and differences. His hypothesis was that low levels of intergrations of individuals into social groups caused high rates of suicide, he concluded (by finding research) that Protestants had higher rates due to less social integration compared to Catholics. His hypothesis was correct
• Advantage of using Comparative Method: Avoids Artificiality

  Avoids artificiality - it studies real-life situations rather than creating artificial conditions like in laboratory experiments.

  • For eg: Durkheim’s study of suicide used existing official statistics, allowing him to analyze real social behaviors + patterns without interfering in people’s lives.

  Makes findings more valid - they're based on natural occurrences rather than responses to controlled or unnatural environments.

  So it is useful for producing realistic and applicable insights into social phenomena.
• Advantage of using Comparative Method: Used to study past events 


  Useful for studying past events that cannot be replicated or tested experimentally.Useful for studying past events that cannot be replicated or tested experimentally.

  • For e,g, Durkheim's study of suicide relied on historical data, such as official records and statistics, to examine patterns of social integration and regulation across different groups and time periods.

  Allows sociologists to analyze the impact of historical or social factors on human behavior, making it possible to explore behaviours that would be inaccessable
• Advantage of using Comparative Method: No ethical problems

  It avoids ethical problems, as it relies on existing data rather direct interaction with participants.

  • For eg; in Durkheim's study, he analyzed official statistics (already available) - he didn't have to intervene in people's lives, avoiding potential harm or distress.

  Makes the method ethical - it respects individuals' privacy, doesn't require informed consent or involve deception.

  Therefore, the comparative method is a practical and ethical approach to studying sensitive social issues like suicide.
• DISadvantage of using Comparative Method: Less control over variables

  Researcher has less control over variables compared to field experiments.

  • For eg;, Durkheim's study- he couldn't control factors like how accurately suicide was reported in different countries or how cultural differences might influence the interpretation of data.

  Lack of control - it is harder to establish cause-and-effect relationships as other variables that were not accounted for might have influenced the results, reducing the reliability of the findings.

  So it can be limited in its ability to produce precision
• DISadvantage of using Comparative Method: Not considered very scientific

  This method relies on secondary data, eg; official statistics, which may be incomplete, biased, or collected using inconsistent methods across different contexts.

  Makes the findings less reliable - the researcher cannot ensure the data was collected systematically or with the same level of precision as in controlled experiments. It Lacks the replicability that positivists value in scientific research.

  It is seen as less rigorous and objective than methods like laboratory or field experiments.
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) Briefly explain the sample and control of Harvey and Dlatin's study of teacher's preconcieved ideas about pupils of different social classes

  Sample:

  • 96 teachers
  • Shown 18 photographs of children from different social class backgrounds (equal gender and ethnicity distribution).

  Controls:

  • Photographs controlled for gender and ethnicity to isolate the effect of perceived social class.
  • Teachers rated the children based on performance, parental attitudes, and aspirations.
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) Briefly explain the Findings of Harvey and Slatin's study of teacher's preconcieved ideas about pupils of different social classes

  Findings:

  • Lower-class children were rated less favorably, especially by experienced teachers.
  • Teachers' expectations were influenced by perceived social class, suggesting labelling based on class differences.
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) What are the ethical problems of this?

  When experiments involve real participants, especially young people, who may not fully understand the nature of the study or give informed consent. n education research, using real pupils can lead to harm or stress.

  • in Harvey + Slatin's study, No real pupils were involved, minimizing ethical concerns.
  • However, using photographs may reduce realism
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) What are the Narrow Focus problems of this?


  Laboratory experiments often isolate one specific variable to study in detail (e.g., teacher expectations based on social class).

  • Can be useful for understanding specific behaviors, eg body language or eye contact, but ignores the wider social processes at play.

  In Harvey + Slatin's study, they Focused only on social class as a variable, Ignored other factors influencing teacher expectations, such as behavior or parental influence.
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) What are the Practical problems of this?


  • Complexity of Schools:

  Schools have many uncontrollable variables (e.g., class size, streaming, behavior) that cannot be fully replicated in experiments.

  • Time and Resources: Experiments require significant time, effort, and consent, making them hard to organize.
  • Access Issues: Schools may be reluctant to participate, and gaining access to pupils and teachers can be challenging.
  • Variable Control: Real-life interactions are too complex to isolate cause and effect in lab settings.
• (lab experiments and teacher expectations) What are the Artificiality problems of this?


  • Laboratory experiments may not reflect real-world education environments, reducing

  ecological validity.

  • For example, Harvey and Slatin (1976) used photographs rather than real pupils, and Charkin et al. used university students as teachers, which may not replicate real classroom dynamics.
  • Teachers' expectations in real life are influenced by multiple factors (e.g., behavior, accents, parental attitudes), which cannot be captured in a controlled laboratory setting
• (Field experiments and teacher experiments) What are the ethical problems of this?

  EG; Rosenthal and Jacobson's study, raise ethical concerns. Deception - as participants (teachers and pupils) were misled about the purpose of the study and the nature of the IQ test. This can lead to unintended harm—for example, students who were not identified as "spurters" might have received less attention and encouragement, negatively impacting their performance. Ethical concerns also arise when participants are unaware they are part of an experiment, denying them informed consent.
• (Field experiments and teacher experiments) What are the relaibility problems of this?

  While Rosenthal and Jacobson’s experiment was repeated several times, its reliability is questioned due to variations in school environments, teaching styles, and pupil demographics, which can influence outcomes. These differences make it challenging to ensure the same results across different settings.
• (Field experiments and teacher experiments) What are the Validity problems of this?

  Rosenthal and Jacobson argued that teacher expectations influenced pupil performance. However, the lack of direct classroom observation undermines the internal validity of their conclusions.
• (Field experiments and teacher experiments) What are the Broader Focus problems of this?

  Unlike laboratory experiments, field experiments allow researchers to study processes over time in a real-world setting. Rosenthal and Jacobson examined the labelling process, including how teacher expectations impacted pupils and tracked trends longitudinally. This broader focus provided insights into how teacher expectations affect pupil outcomes over time, rather than isolating single elements.