Loftus and palmer

• Background question: Loftus and Palmer (4 marks)

  1.Outline what memory is and make reference to schemas2.Outline reconstructive memory (reference expectations and post-event information)3.Outline the problems with eye witness testimony4.How this inspired Loftus and Palmer-Memory is the term given to the structures and the processes involved in the storage and retrieval of information. Bartlett (1932) suggested that memory is influenced by what an individual already knows, using their past experiences to deal with a new experience, known as schemas.-Reconstructive memory involves interpreting what is seen or heard but this can be distorted in two ways. Firstly, our expectations of what we anticipate would have happened and post- event information, such as how we are asked to recall information.-All of this is important to know when we consider eye witness testimony, as the memory of an event can be easily influenced, yet juries are often very convinced by an eye witness testimony.-This lead Loftus and palmer to investigate how reliable they are, and how memory can be impacted by leading questions.
• What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer's study?


  To investigate theeffects of leading questionson an individual’s ability toaccurately recall events.
• What was the research method of Loftus and Palmer's study?


  There weretwo studieswithin this experiment.Both studies conducted werelab experiments, using anindependent measures design
• What were the

  DVandIVforexperiment 1in Loftus and palmer's study?IV- wording of the critical questione.ghit/smashed/collided/contacted/bumped each other

  DV- estimated speed in mph
• What was the

  sampleandsampling methodforexperiment 1in Loftus and palmer's study?Sample- 45 students from the University of Washington

  Sampling method- Opportunity sampling as they were her students so readily available to her
• What was

  Procedureforexperiment 1inLoftus and Palmer'sstudy? (6)•The students were split in tofive groups of 9

  •They all watched thesame 7 film clips of different traffic accidentsalone in a room

  •Followingeach clipthe participants were given aquestionnaireof thesame set of questionsasking them to recall the accidents

  HOWEVER•Acritical questionwas included in the questionnaire that asked the students‘how fast were the cars going when they………into each other?’

  •This critical question was manipulated into5 conditions with 5 different verbs(IV)smashed, hit, collided, bumped or contacted

  •Their estimated speed wasrecorded in miles per hour(DV)
• Outline one

  controlused inExp 1inLoftus and Palmer'sstudy? (2)One of these:

  -Same 7 film clips of traffic accidents

  -Same questionnaire with the exception of critical verb
• Why was it important that all participants watched exactly

  the samefilms inLoftus and Palmer'sstudy?To ensure control in the experiment so Loftus and Palmer can be sure it was due to the verb (IV) that effected speed estimates not the film.
• Why would they embed the critical question (IV) with others, rather than just ask the on being analysed in

  Loftus and Palmer'sstudy?The other questions were a distracter to ensure students did not guess the aim of the study and respond with demand characteristics.
• Results - Experiment 1 in Loftus and Palmer's study? (2)


  Estimated speedSmashed-40.5mphhighestContacted- 31.8mphlowest
• What can we conclude from the results of exp 1 in Loftus and Palmer's study? Remember to link it to the aim of the investigation and support your claims with some evidence. (2)

  ·Theverbused in a questioninfluences a participant’s responsei.e. the way a question is phrased influences the answer given·People are not very good at judging vehicular speed
• Why was there an exp 2 in Loftus and Palmer's study? And what were the 2 possible explanations?

  Loftusstill needed conclusive answersfor why the participants estimated the speed the way they did.

  Two possible explanations:Response bias:It is difficult to estimate speed accurately, so a more serious sounding verb simply makes people estimate higher participant may have been unsure whether to say 30mph or 40mph so the verb smashed biased their response (their actual memory for the event has NOT changed).

  Changes in memory:More serious sounding verbs caused people to really believe they did witness the cars travelling faster (alters their memory of the event).
• What was the sample for

  experiment 2in Loftus and palmer's study? (2)-150differentstudents from Washington University-divided into 3 groups with 50 participants in each group.
• What was

  Procedureforexperiment 2inLoftus and Palmer'sstudy? (6)•Split into 3 groups of 50•Watches one short clip of an accident•Asked to complete a questionnaire with a critical question•One week later, all the participants came back, andwithout watching the filmagain, they were asked 10 questions about the film. Embedded in this new series of questions was anew critical questionthat appeared in a random order in the questions thatallparticipants were asked. The critical Q was:‘Did you see any broken glass?’•This was to see if afalse memorycould be implanted in their cognitive processing to see evidence forreconstructive memory.•TheIndependent variablein the 2nd experiment was the verb used when asked about the speed (smashed and hit). Thedependent variablewas the reporting of any broken glass by participants one week later.
• What were the

  conditionsfor the3 groupsin theexp 2inLoftus and Palmer'sstudy?One group-SmashedquestionsSecond group-HitquestionControlgroup-weren’t asked about the speed
• Results exp 2 - Loftus and Palmer's study

  More participants in the "smashed" (16) condition than the "hit" (7) or control (6) groups reported seeing broken glass.
• Conclusions for exp 2 in Loftus and Palmer's study (2)

  •Misleading post event information can distort an individual’s memory.•The participants saw the film and some memories werecreatedfrom this. The leading question provided after, however,added informationthat there had been a ‘smash’. We associate ‘smash’ with being broken and soexpectbroken glass to be present so participants add to their memory and recall seeing broken glass.
• Overall conclusions from Loftus and Palmer's study (2)

  •Memories are constructed from two sources of information -what we actually perceive as happeningat the time AND theinformationwhichis later receivedand incorporated into our memories. Information from the two sources willintegrateover time and we will be unable to decipher which source the information comes from. We are thereforeunable to tell whether our memory is accurate.

  •Therefore, overall it is safe to say thateyewitness accounts of events may not be reliable sources of information,especially when leading questions are used.
• Usefulness- Practical Applications for Loftus and Palmer's study (3)

  •The research conducted by Loftus and Palmer has had amassive affect on the way that witnesses are dealt withby police and in the courtroom.

  •Police should nowno longer be using leading questionsand any hint of a leading question can lead to the witness as being classed as unreliable.

  •Loftus & Palmer’s findings can be used to help police developimproved interview techniquesthat avoid using leading questions, thereforeincreasing the validityof witnesses’ testimonies.
• Research method: Strength in Loftus and Palmer's study

  Two lab experiments withhigh levels of control over extraneous variablesas all participants had thesame questions (other than the verb in the critical question), and watched the same clips for the same lengths of time. This meant thatextraneous variableswerecontrolledso they did not become confounding and acause and effectcould be established between leading questions and Eye Witness accuracy.
• Research method: Weaknesses in Loftus and Palmer's study

  -Labexperimentslack ecological validitydue to theartificial environment. Theparticipants were in a room all together, watching 7 different clips of car accidents and answering a questionnaire after each one. In real life a person would be at the scene of the crime and have the emotional arousal, therefore lab experiments are hard togeneraliseto real life.

  - Use ofIndependent Measures Design-individual differencesincreased (driving experience)
• Type of data: Strengths in Loftus and Palmer's study

  -Quantitative data–MPH estimates and number of participants who reported seeing broken glass in exp 2- is easier toreplicate, therefore increasing theexternal reliabilityof the study.

  - It is alsoeasy to analyse and compare between groups, increasing theinternal validityof the study as the data is thereforeobjectiveandunbiased, so morescientific
• Type of data: Weakness in Loftus and Palmer's study

  Quantitative data does not provide reasons behind behaviour, therefore reducing the internal validityandusefulness
• Sample: Strength in Loftus and Palmer's study

  Experiment 2. Used alarge sampleofdifferent students- slightlyless biased.
• Sample: Weaknesses in Loftus and Palmer's study (3)

  -All students-Biasedsample-PP’s in exp. 1 all loftus’ students– all holdingsimilar characteristics–biased.- All fromWashington Uni.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study high in internal validity?

  Controls overextraneous variablesare implemented, for exampleall participants watch the same 7 clips of car accidents, all lasting between 5 and 30 seconds and all answered the same questionnaire with the only difference being the critical question. This allows Loftus to establish acause and effect relationshipbetween the strength of theleading verb and Eye Witness accuracy.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study low in validity? (3)


  -Independent measures designwas used, meaning participants were not matched against any personal characteristics. We therefore do not know theprevious driving experience of the participants. This therefore means that Loftus may not have successfully measured theimpact of the verb in a leading questionas other factors mayreduce validity.-Lowecological-Lowpopulation
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study high internal reliability?

  •Astandardised procedureis usedwhere all participants watch the same 7 clips, at the same time and have the same questionnaire. This makes the studyeasier to replicate, thereforeincreasing the internal reliabilityof the study. This ensures that research can bereplicatedwith different groups of people and in different cultures to provide further support for theories.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study low in reliability?

  •At the start of the questionnaire the participants had to give an account of the accident they saw, thereforequalitative datawas gathered (although this wasn’t analysed). This would bedifficult to replicate, therefore making the studyslightlylow in external reliability. This means there will be less consistency of results, thereforelimiting usefulnessof the study as there is limited support of the theories.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study ethical?

  Right to withdraw
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study unethical? (3)

  -Potential distress from watching car crashes for some people.

  -Deception

  -Not fully informed
• What is a strength that the p's were not fully informed in Loftus and Palmer's study?

  increasesvalidityof results as p's more likely to act naturally.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study scientific? (2)

  -High controls so cause and effect can be established

  -High replicability due to highly standardised nature
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study unscientific?

  Unable tooperationalise/measure internalmental processes. Wecannot truly see how the mind processes information to produce a behavioural output
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study illustrate the individual debate?

  Even though this research doeshighlight the impact of leading questions on memory distortion, manyp's in experiment 2 still claimed to have seen no broken glasswhich showsindividual differencesin the ability to recall the details of previously experiences events.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study illustrate the situational debate?

  Theverb used in the critical question led to a biased response from the participant. This demonstrates how thesituational variable, type of question asked, impacts on the response giving by the participants.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's study useful?


  The research conducted by Loftus and Palmer has had a massive effect on the way that witnesses are dealt with by police and in the courtroom. Police should now no longer be usingleading questionsand any hint of a leading question can lead to the witness as being classed asunreliable. Loftus & Palmer’s findings can be used to help police developimproved interview techniquesthat avoid using leading questions, thereforeincreasing the accuracy of witnesses’ testimonies.
• How does Loftus and Palmer's study have limited usefulness?


  Due to thelack of ecological validitythis can limit the usefulness of findings to an extent as they may not be generalisable to real life.
• How is Loftus and Palmer's socially sensitive?

  Stigma-The results of this research can attach a negative label to eye witness testimonies. Which could prove problematic in a court case, when theeye witness account is actually accurate. Due to these findings questioning the reliability of eye witness accountsit may make them a less credible sourceand change juries opinions of trusting them.