Gender

• Eckert (1990) - diversity

  we need to explore other reason for language variation such as social class
• Deborah Cameron (2009) - diversity

  • gendered language is a myth
  • there can be as many differences in communication between two men as there could be between a man and a woman
  • verbal hygiene - language changes for certain contexts, eg. James the gay doctor (Podvesa’s study)
• Janet Holmes (1984) - diversity

  • researched tag questions, used to express solidarity
  • tag questions could weaken a command or criticism
• O’Barr and Atkins (1980) - diversity

  • studies court rooms
  • language difference based on power relations, not gender
  • challenged Lakoff
• Janet Hyde (2005) - diversity

  gender similarities hypothesis: men and women are similar on most, but not all, psychological variable, this includes speech
• Judith Butler (1993) - diversity

  the way we present ourselves, such as our speech and body language, and continually repeat these presentations, constructs our gender rather than reflecting it - gender performativity
• Victor Seidler (1989) - diversity

  men and women tend to discuss different topics in single sec conversations
• James Pennebaker (2005)- diversity

  in mixed sex conversations the number of words spoken by men and women were the same, more differences within genders than between them
• Jenny Cheshire (1982) - diversity

  males are more open to covert prestige, social attitude is more of a determining factor than gender
• Lakoff (1975) -deficit

  women are socialised into behaving like ‘ladies’, that subordinate position stops them from being powerful

  women use polite forms, tag questions, and apologise more
• Zimmerman and West (1974) - dominance

  men take the dominance role in mixed sex conversation, men are more likely to interrupt
• Jesperson (1922) - deficit

  • women talk more
  • women use easy words
  • women have smaller vocab
  • women use indirect language
  • women use caring adjectives too much, eg. ‘pretty’
  • women are too emotional
• Cons of Jesperson’s deficit approach

  didn’t conduct any studies
• Fishman (1983) - deficit

  • studied mix sex conversations and tag questions
  • found women use 4 times as many yes/no tag questions as men
  • shows women trying to keep conversations going rather than showing uncertainty
  • women work harder in conversations
  • due to women’s inferior place in society
  • women do interactional ‘shit work’ - minimal responses, and tag questions to keep conversations going
• Deborah Tannen (1990) - difference

  when men hear a complaint, they focus on solving the situation themselves (advice vs understanding), women offer sympathy
• Christine Howe (1997) - difference

  • language difference due to socialisation
  • men aim to gain power
  • men respond in conversation more
  • women are more active listeners
• Ann Weatherall - difference

  • women’s talk is cooperative
  • men’s talk is competitive
  • women use hedges more, eg. ’sort of’
  • women speak less
  • women use more tag questions
• Jane Pilkington (1992) - difference

  • women talk to support ideas
  • women focus on emotions
  • women agree, men disagree in conversations
  • men talk competitively, verbal sparring
• Zimmerman and West (1974) - dominance

  • men take the dominance role in mixed sex conversations, men are more likely to interrupt (98%)
  • reflects patriarchal society
• Limitations of Zimmerman and West’s study (1974) - dominance

  • small scale study
  • not diverse or representative (observed white, middle class, young men)
• Shirley and Edwin Ardener (1975) - dominance

  • women are often muted in social settings because the language they use is not privileged in male dominated spaces
  • the dominant language, in a society, structures the way people think and communicate - this reinforces inequalities
• Dale Spender (1980) - dominance

  • men dominate women in language, reflecting a patriarchal society
  • in a gender neutral environment, males and females should use language in the same way
  • a male dominated society has structured and regulated language to reflect men’s best interests
• Jennifer Coates (1993) - dominance

  • women as an oppressed group
  • men as dominant, eg. mansplaining
  • women as subordinate
• Jennifer Coates (1988) - difference

  boys and girls belong to same-sex friendship groups so develop different ways of speaking
• Geoffrey Beattie (1982) - dominance

  • critical of zimmerman and west
  • studied mixed sex conversations
  • men interrupt slightly more, not statistically significant
• Jane Pilkington (1998) - difference

  both genders gossip but for different purposes
• Deborah Jones (1990) - difference

  categorised women’s talk into 4 main groups:

  1. house talk
  2. scandal
  3. bitching
  4. chatting
• Sara Mills - diversity

  gender relates to beliefs of sexism
• Judith Baxter (2002) - diversity

  • both genders capable of taking powerful roles
  • women don’t lack power
• Idiolect 


  language used by the individual
• Sociolect

  language used by a social group
• Genderlect

  language used by a specific gender
• Binary

  male or female (only 2 genders)
• Heteronormativity

  the unconscious assumption that all are heterosexual
• Kiesling (1997)

  competitive and argumentative language constructs masculinity