Psychopathology

• What does the statistical infrequency definition mean?

  if it is statistically unusual then it is defined as abnormal
• Evaluations of the statistical infrequency definition?

  • individuals being assessed as abnormal have been evaluated objectively
  • the cut off point for what is statistically rare enough to be defined as abnormal is defined subjectively
  • not all statistically rare traits are unusual
• What does the failure to function adequately definition mean?

  When a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, experiences personal distress and when their behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous
• evaluations of failure to function adequately definition?

  • the decision about whether someone is coping is subjective
  • not all maladaptive behaviour indicates abnormality
  • it respects the individual and their personal experience
• What does deviation from social norms mean?

  When a person behaves differently from how society expects them to behave
• Evaluations of deviation from social norms?

  • respects cultural differences between societies
  • can be seen as punishing for people trying to express their individuality
• What does deviation from ideal mental health mean?

  When an individual no longer meets the criteria for good mental health
• Evaluations of deviation from ideal mental health?

  • comes from its basis in humanistic psychology which may be culturally biased
  • criteria for ideal mental health is very strict
• What is a phobia?

  An extreme and irrational fear of objects or social situations
• What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

  avoidance-where normal behaviour is adapted to avoid phobic objects or situations

  panic-an uncontrollable physical response at the appearanace of the phobic object

  failure to function-difficulty taking part in activities required to live a normal life
• What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

  anxiety-an uncomfortably high and persistent state of arousal, making it difficult to relax

  fear-a sensation of extreme and unpleasant alertness in the presence of the phobia
• What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

  • irrational thoughts
  • selective attention
• What is the two-process model?

  Where phobias are acquired through classical conditioning then maintained through operant conditioning
• how are phobias acquired through classical conditioning?

  • Phobic object starts as neutral stimulus and is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce an unconditioned response
  • An association is formed and the phobic object becomes a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response
• How are phobias maintained through operant conditioning?

  • An individual who is aware of their phobia will avoid that phobic stimulus and situations that makes them encounter it
  • The avoidance behaviour is rewarded with a reduction in symptoms such as anxiety which is an example of negative reinforcement.
  • This strengthens the phobia as an individual is encouraged to maintain the avoidance behaviour
• Strengths of behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?

  • empirical evidence (watson little albert 1920: little albert acquired phobia through association and also showed generalisation to other similar objects)
  • behaviourist theories of phobia acquisition and maintenance have been practically applied to counter-conditioning therapies
• Limitations of behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?

  • Humans dont display phobic responses to extremely dangerous objects compared to snakes or spiders therefore phobias may be better explained by evolutionary theory
  • Counter research showed that only 2% of children with a phobia of water could recall a negative experience with water suggesting that behaviourist approach doesnt fully explain all phobias
• What is flooding?

  Where patients experience prolonged, intense high level exposure to their phobic object or situation
• How does flooding treat phobias?

  Patients experience continuous exposure where avoidance isn't possible. Then their anxiety will reduce as they realise there is no danger . The association between fear and the phobic stimulus/situation is then broken
• What is systematic desensitisation?

  A behavioural therapy that uses reverse counter-conditioning to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation or object, by replacing it with relaxation
• What are the steps of SD?

  1. relaxation techniques taught
  2. fear hierarchy made
  3. patient gradually works way up their hierarchy, pairing each anxiety provoking event with relaxation
  4. once one step of the hierarchy is mastered and they are fully relaxed, then they can move on to the next
  5. patient eventually masters the feared situation at the top of their hierarchy
• Strengths of flooding?

  • Quick and effective-leads to significant reduction in fear and anxiety after only one or a few sessions
  • No need for relaxation training-this is due to its focus on intense exposure and this simplifies the process for therapist and patient
• Weaknesses of Flooding?

  • More effective in treating simple phobias such as objects but much more difficult with more complex phobias such as social situations and this is due to the way the treatment is structured and the controlled environment that it is set in
  • Ethical concerns-due to inducing intensive anxiety in patients which is seen as potentially harmful
• Strengths of SD?

  • Credible as it has empirical evidence to support it-(1973) study where 90% of SD group with snake phobia overcame it while only 23% of control group overcame it
  • Gradual exposure means there is less of a chance of a relapse taking place
• Weaknesses of SD?

  • Takes 6-8 sessions meaning it takes a while for the phobia to be treated
  • More effective with specific phobias such as objects rather than more complex phobias such as social situations due to the structure of the treatment and the controlled environment that is set in
• What is an obsession?

  an idea that is repetitive and causes anxiety
• What is a compulsion?

  A mental or behavioural act that is rigid and alleviates the anxiety
• What are the behavioral symptoms of OCD?

  • performing repetitive behaviours
  • avoidance
• What are the cognitive symptoms of OCD?

  • Hypervigilance
  • catastrophic thoughts
  • selective attention
• What are the emotional symptoms of OCD?

  • low mood
  • distress
• van grootheest et al (2005)

  • meta analysis of twin studies which showed higher concordance rates for monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins supporting biological approach
  • Rate for Mz twins never reached 100% suggesting biological factors alone do not contribute to OCD
• Nestadt (2000)

  • study of OCD patients and their first degree relatives compared with control patients and their first degree relatives
  • found that people who had first degree relatives with OCD were 5x more likely to have it compared to people without
• What is the SERT genes function?

  • Responsible for the reuptake of serotonin from the presynaptic neuron into the synapse
  • SERT causes lower serotonin levels which leads to higher anxiety caused by obsessions
• What is the OFC?

  • found in the frontal lobe
  • notices when there is danger nearby and sends a signal to the thalamus
• What is the Thalamus?


  • found near the basal ganglia
  • redirects 'worry signals' from the OFC to other parts of the body
• What is the caudate nucleus?

  • found in the basal ganglia
  • regulates signals between the OFC and thalamus and suppresses minor signals
• A damaged caudate nucleus can lead to minor signals not being suppressed which leads to the thalamus becoming overexcited and sending strong signals back to the OFC which responds by increasing compulsive behaviour and anxiety
• Strengths of biological explanation of OCD?

  • empirical evidence for genetic explanation (Van Grootheest et al 2005 and Nestadt 2000)
  • Neuroimaging studies using PET scanners have shown hyperactivity in OFC and Thalamus of OCD patients supporting neural explanation
• Limitations of biological explanation of OCD?

  • concordance rate for Mz twins in Van Grootheest study never reached 100% suggesting that biological factors alone cannot account for OCD
  • There is no evidence to show that hyperactivity in the OFC and thalamus, and low serotonin levels are causes of OCD instead of effects therefore there is no way of knowing if they are causes or effects
• How do SSRIs increase serotonin levels?

  By blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron. This prolongs its activity in the synapse to normalise the worry circuit which ends up reducing anxiety experienced due to obsessions