Observational techniques

• Naturalistic observation


  Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within it would normally occur.

  All aspects of the environment are free to vary.

  E.g Study behaviour of factory workers in the factory than in lab environment.
• Controlled observation


  Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment.

  E.g Mary Ainsworth in strange situation.

  Recorded data remotely via a 2 way mirror.

  Control over variables, including Manipulating variables to observe effects and the control of confounding/extraneous variables.
• Covert observation

  Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

  Participants are unaware of focus of the study e.g from across the room.

  Such behaviour must be public and happening anyways for it to be ethical.
• Overt observation

  • Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
  • Participants have given their informed consent before hand.
• Example of participant observation

  The study of workers in a factory can be improved by the researcher joining the workers to produce a first hand account.
• Non-participant observation

  • Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he or she is watching and recording.
  • More objective.
  • It may be impractical to join a particular group
• Why is it impossible for researchers to join some groups?

  Middle aged female research observing behaviour amongst yr 10 students at a boys school.
• Participant observation

  A researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
• Strength of general observations

  • Capture what people actually do, which may be unexpected. As people don’t usually act the same way when they know they are being studied.
• Limitations of general observations

  • Observer bias: Observers interpretation of a situation, may be influenced by their expectations. Thus can be reduced by using more than one observer.
  • Cannot demonstrate causal relationship (observational studies). No manipulation of IV and measured effect on DV
• Strength of naturalistic observation

  • High external validity, findings can be generalised to everyday situations. As behaviour is studied within the environment where it would usually occur.
• Limitation of naturalistic observation

  • Lack of control, makes replication more difficult. There may also be many uncontrolled confounding/extraneous variables that make it difficult to judge patterns of behaviour.
• Limitation of controlled observation

  • May produce findings which cannot be readily applied to everyday life.
• Strengths of controlled observations

  • Confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a problem so replication becomes easier.
• Strength of covert observation

  • The fact that participants do not know they are being observed reduced the problem of demand characteristics and ensures behaviour is natural, increases internal validity of data collected.
• Limitation of convert observation

  • Ethics of study may be questioned as public may not ish to have their behaviours noted down (right to privacy). E.g shopping, a public activity but people would want other people knowing how much they spend.
• Strength of overt observation

  • More ethically acceptable, participants give informed consent.
• Strength of participant observation

  • Increased insight into lives of people being studied, increases external validity of findings.
• Limitation of participant observation

  • Researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and loose objectivity. Some researchers refer to this as going native.
• Strength of non-participant observation

  • Allows researcher to remain an objective psychological distance from participants so there is less danger of them going native.
• Limitation of non-participant observation

  • May loose valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation, as they are too far removed from people and behaviour that they are studying.