ethnicity

• When did crime by Asians begin to be viewed as a problem?

  In the 1990s
• What events helped crystallize the idea of Asians as an 'enemy within'?

  2001 clashes and 9/11 attacks
• What are the two main explanations for ethnic differences in crime statistics?

  Left realism and Neo-Marxism
• What does left realism argue about ethnic differences in crime statistics?

  • Reflect real differences in offending
  • Result from relative deprivation, subculture, and marginalisation
  • Economic exclusion leads to higher crime rates
• According to left realists, what leads to the formation of delinquent subcultures?

  Relative deprivation and marginalisation
• How do left realists explain higher levels of utilitarian crime?

  As a coping mechanism for relative deprivation
• What do Lea and Young acknowledge about police behavior?

  Police often act in racist ways
• Why do Lea and Young believe police racism does not fully explain ethnic differences in crime statistics?

  Most crimes are reported by the public
• What is the difference in criminalization rates between blacks and Asians according to Lea and Young?

  Blacks have higher rates than Asians
• What do critics argue about Lea and Young's views on police racism?

  Police stereotype blacks as dangerous
• What is Neo-Marxism's view on ethnic differences in crime statistics?

  • Differences are socially constructed
  • Stereotypes portray minorities as more criminal
  • Criminalization is a result of racist stereotypes
• Who argues that the idea of black criminality is a myth?

  Paul Gilroy
• How does Gilroy view ethnic minority crime?

  As political resistance against racism
• What was the arrest rate for blacks compared to whites in 2014/15?

  Three times higher
• Why might minority ethnic groups be less likely to receive a caution?

  They often deny the offence
• What does the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) decide?

  Whether to prosecute cases in court
• Why might the CPS drop cases against ethnic minorities?

  Weaker evidence based on stereotypes
• What is the trend regarding minority ethnic groups and jury trials?

  They prefer trials before a jury
• What do studies suggest about conviction rates for black and Asian defendants?

  They are less likely to be found guilty
• What is the imprisonment rate difference for black and Asian offenders compared to white offenders?

  Higher for both black and Asian offenders
• What do pre-sentence reports (PSRs) assist magistrates with?

  Deciding on appropriate sentences
• How do PSRs potentially lead to discrimination?

  Reports on Asians may be biased
• What percentage of the prison population were from minority ethnic groups in 2014?

  Just over a quarter
• How does the likelihood of imprisonment compare between black and white individuals?

  Blacks are four times more likely
• What is a common reason for minority groups being on remand?

  Less likely to be granted bail
• What proportion of prisoners in the U.S. are black?

  Two out of five
• What did Sharp and Budd (2005) find about self-reported offending rates?

  Whites and mixed ethnicity reported highest
• What do self-report studies suggest about black offending rates?

  Challenge the stereotype of higher offending
• What are the main stages of the criminal justice process where ethnic differences are observed?

  1. Policing
  2. Arrests and cautions
  3. Prosecution and trial
  4. Convictions and sentencing
  5. Pre-sentence reports
  6. Prison
• What allegations have been made about policing of minority ethnic communities?

  Oppressive tactics and excessive surveillance
• How much more likely are black people to be stopped and searched compared to whites?

  Seven times more likely
• What does the Terrorism Act 2000 allow police to do?

  Stop and search without reasonable suspicion
• What are the three possible reasons for disproportionate stop and search patterns?

  Police racism, ethnic differences, demographic factors
• What did the Macpherson Report conclude about the Metropolitan Police?

  There was institutional racism
• What is the difference between low discretion and high discretion stops?

  Low discretion uses specific information
• Why are demographic factors relevant to stop and search patterns?

  Minorities are over-represented in high-risk groups
• What do official statistics reveal about ethnic differences in criminalization?

  Blacks are more likely to be imprisoned
• What evidence exists regarding racially motivated offences?

  High rates against minority groups
• Which groups are more likely to be stopped regardless of ethnicity?

  Groups with higher proportions of ethnic minorities
• What do official statistics show about ethnic differences in imprisonment?

  Black people are more likely to be imprisoned