Using DNA sequencing

• bioinformatics= the development of software and computing tools needed to organise and analyse raw biological data, including the development of algorithms, mathematical models that help us make sense of enormous quantities of data being generated.
• Computational biology= uses this data to build theoretical models of biological systems, which can be used to predict what will happen in different circumstances.

  • Determine structure and function of genes
  • Build theoretical models of biological systems
  • Predict 3D structure of proteins
  • Genome wide comparisons (genetic variation, evolutionary relationships)
  • Genotype- phenotype relationships
  • Epidemiology= determine the source of infection, identify antibiotic resistant bacteria, track outbreak progress.
• Identifying species

  DNA barcoding= identify particular sections of the genome that are common to all species but vary between them, so comparisons can be made.

  • Identify species using short sections of DNA.
  • Animals- a 648 base pair section of mitochondrial DNA in gene that codes for enzyme involved in respiration. This section is small enough to be sequenced quickly yet varies enough to give clear differences between species.
  • Plants- regions of DNA in chloroplasts are used.
• Evolutionary relationships

  • Genome sequencing can help understand the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
  • DNA sequences of different organisms can be compared because the basic mutation rate of DNA can be calculated so can calculate how long ago two species diverged from a common ancestors.
• Proteomics= study and amino acid sequencing of an organisms entire protein complement.

  • DNA sequence of the genome should enable you to predict the sequence of the amino acids in all proteins.
• Genomics= use of computational biology to determine structure and function of genes.
• Spliceosomes

  • mRNA transcribed by DNA includes both exons and introns.
  • Before translation the 'pre-mRNA' is modified.
  • The introns are removed and sometimes the exons too.
  • The exons to be translated are joined together by enzyme complexes called spliceosomes to give the mature functional mRNA.
  • Spliceosomes may join the same exons in a variety of ways.
  • As a result a single gene may produce several versions of functional mRNA which would code for different arrangements of amino acids giving different proteins and resulting in different phenotypes.
• Protein modification 

  • Some proteins are modified by other proteins after they are synthesised
  • A protein that is coded for by a gene may remain intact or may be shortened or lengthened to give a variety of other proteins.
• Synthetic biology

  = Ability to sequence the genome of organisms and understand how each sequence is translated into amino acids, along with the increasing ability of computers to store, manipulate and analyse data.

  • Genetic engineering
  • Use of biological systems or parts of biological systems in industrial contexts
  • Synthesis of new genes to replace faulty genes
  • Synthesis of an entire new organism