The emergence of new ideas and opposition

• Both the hope and disappointment brought by Alexander II's reforms stimulated opposition to the tsarist regime. The initial relaxation in censorship encouraged the spread of radical literature while the relaxation of control in higher education increased the number of independently minded students.
• The creation of the Zemstva and dumas also provided a platform for the educated intellectuals to challenge tsarist policies while reform to the judicial system produced professionally trained lawyers skilled in the art of persuasion and ready to question and challenge the autocratic practices.
• The more repressive atmosphere which existed in Alexander II's later years and continued through the reign of Alexander III only served to reinforce the demands for change. These came from many quarters ranging from the mostly mildly behaved liberally minded intelligentsia to the more vociferous student radicals and socialist groups.