Physiology

• What are the four chambers of the heart?

  Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle
• What is the primary function of arteries?

  Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery)
• What distinguishes veins from arteries?

  Veins have thin walls and valves
• What is the role of capillaries in the circulatory system?

  Allow diffusion due to their thin walls
• What do red blood cells (RBCs) carry?

  Oxygen via hemoglobin
• What is the function of white blood cells (WBCs)?

  Provide immune defense
• What is the role of platelets in the blood?

  Clotting
• What does plasma carry in the blood?

  Nutrients, hormones, and waste
• What is pulmonary circulation?

  Heart → lungs → heart
• What is systemic circulation?

  Heart → body → heart
• What is atherosclerosis?

  Plaque buildup in arteries
• What does hypertension refer to?

  High blood pressure damaging arteries
• What is anemia?

  Low RBCs or hemoglobin causing fatigue
• What is the digestive tract pathway?

  • Mouth
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small Intestine
  • Large Intestine
  • Rectum
  • Anus
• What enzyme in saliva breaks down starch?

  Amylase
• What does the stomach secrete for digestion?

  Pepsin and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• What is the function of the small intestine?

  Absorbs nutrients via villi
• What occurs in the large intestine?

  Water absorption and feces formation
• What does the liver produce for fat digestion?

  Bile
• What is the role of the pancreas?

  Releases enzymes and insulin
• What is the function of the spleen?

  Filters blood and recycles RBCs
• What do kidneys do in the excretory system?

  Filter blood and remove waste
• What is the pathway of urine elimination?

  Ureters → bladder → urethra
• What is liver cirrhosis?

  Damage from alcohol or viruses
• What are kidney stones?

  Calcium buildup causing pain
• What are the main defenses of the immune system?

  • Innate immunity: skin, mucus, WBCs
  • Adaptive immunity: T-cells, B-cells
• What do macrophages do in the immune system?

  Engulf pathogens
• What is the function of B-cells?

  Produce antibodies
• What do T-cells do?

  Kill infected cells
• What are antibodies?

  Molecules that tag pathogens for destruction
• What are cytokines?

  Molecules that signal immune response
• What are autoimmune diseases?

  Conditions where the body attacks itself
• What is immunodeficiency?

  Weak immune system, like HIV/AIDS
• What are the main parts of the nervous system?

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): brain + spinal cord
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves outside CNS
• What do sensory nerves do?

  Send signals to the CNS
• What do motor nerves do?

  Send signals from the CNS
• What are the main structures of a neuron?

  Dendrites, axon, myelin sheath
• What is the function of dendrites?

  Receive signals
• What does the axon do?

  Sends electrical impulses
• What is the role of the myelin sheath?

  Speeds up conduction of impulses