Explanations for GENDER Inequality

• Functionalism: Talcott Parsons


  • Societies are stratified bc it's a 'functional prerequisite'
  • Societies need stratification to function
  • Gender stratification is good bc M + W fill diff roles: expressive + instrumental
• Functionalism: Why do M have higher 'human capital'?


  • Rastogi: Human capital = 'Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour embedded in an individual'
  • M more committed to paid work (bc W are more likely to be PT (due to fem. roles e.g. childcare))
• Functionalism AO3: Witz


  Said even W who don't take career breaks end up in lower-status work
• Functionalism AO3: Oakley


  Gender roles are socially constructed, not biological
• Functionalism AO3: Sloane


  Gender impacts pay regardless of qualifications
• TNR: What are trad. gender roles important for?

  • The wellbeing of individuals + society
  • Gender roles are biologically determined + M/W should have diff. roles in society
• TNR: What type of family facilitates trad. gender roles?

  Nuclear family
• Marxism: Engels

  • W are subordinate due to:

  1. Private property
  2. Rise of nuclear family - In Capitalist societies, M want to pass wealth to children which enforced monogamy to protect male property rights.

  • W also support capitalism through domestic labour
• Marxism AO3: Critiquing Engels

  • PMs - outdated ideas, gender roles have changed a lot
  • Overemphasise impact of class + economic factors on gender
  • Focus on macro issues at the expense of small interactions between M/W that provide a valid understanding of their relationships
• Liberal Feminism key ideas

  • Nobody benefits from gender inequality
  • Want gradual change in societies social + economic systems
  • Don't want radical overhaul of society
  • Gender ≠ is a cultural by-product; we're socialised into seeing low expectations for female success
• Liberal Feminism: 2 methods to overcome discrimination

  1. Campaigning to change laws
  2. Challenging gender socialisation
• Liberal Feminism: Sue Sharpe


  • Interviewed WC girls in 1970 + 1990
  • Girls were becoming more confident + feeling less +ve ab. marriage
• Liberal Feminism AO3:

  • PMs - gender identities aren't fixed
  • Continuing pay gap = legislation isn't enough
  • Gender ≠ isn't just cultural; social institutions are designed to oppress W/uphold patriarchy ➡️ Total overhaul
• Marxist Feminism key ideas

  • Capitalism causes F oppression
  • Gender ≠ maintained by W adopting the dom. ideology that nuclear family & diff.s between M/W are natural
  • W support capitalism via unpaid domestic work + makingg new workers
  • Society should be remade into a Commie state; it would emancipate W
• Marxist Feminism: Ansley


  They act as a safety valve by soothing the frustrations of men after work
• Marxist Fem: What 4 characteristics did Beechey say made W suitable to be a reserve army of labour?


  1. Weak unionization
  2. Lower wages
  3. Less legal protection
  4. Emphasised housewife role
• Marxist Fem AO3: What do they overemphasise?

  Social class
• Marxist Fem AO3: Which feminist perspective is critical of MF arguing that patriarchy is more significant than capitalism?

  Radical feminists
• Radical Fem: What do Radfems argue is the main cause of gender ≠?

  Patriarchy - men
• Radical Fem: Who benefits from female subordination?

  Men
• Radical Fem: What did Delphy & Leonard say ab. the family?


  • Its an economic system that M use to benefit from the subordination of W
  • It maintains male dominance
  • W provide 57 kinds of unpaid services (e.g., sex, childbirth)
• Radical Fem: Who argued that a woman's biological ability to have children is the reason for her subordination?


  Shulamith Firestone
• Radical Fem AO3: Who argued with Firestone and said that W subordination isn't rooted in Bio, but rather it's socially created?


  Millet
• How can you evaluate Radical Feminism?

  1. Some argue that other ≠s (e.g., ethnicity, s. class) are more important
  2. They ignore progress made towards gender equality
  3. Criticised for overemphasising the diff.s between M & W ​
• Black Fem: What do Black Feminists argue that other forms of feminism have neglected to mention?

  Black W face particular problems that they don't discuss
• Black Feminism: What have Black W been socialised to see themselves as?

  Less valuble than others
• Black Feminism: Who wrote 'Ain't I A Woman' in 1981?

  bell hooks
• Black Feminism: What is bell hooks' 'Ain't I A Woman' about?

  Blk W suffered more than any other group during slavery BUT were excluded from anti-slavery events for being female LEADING TO them also be excluded from CR movements
• Black Feminism: What are some stereotypes that Mirza wants Black British feminism to counter?


  British Black women being seen as sexually available, exotic, dutiful wife/daughter etc.
• Weber: 3 dimensions of stratification

  1. Class
  2. Status
  3. Party
• Weber: Status + gender ≠

  • W more likely (than M) to work in the secondary labour market's lower status jobs
  • W's domestic roles have little status/power
• Weber: 2 concepts showing the impact of status on gender ≠

  • Horizontal segregation: M/W concentrated in diff. occupations
  • Vertical segregation: W occupying lower lvls of pay/status in certain jobs
• Weber: Party + gender ≠


  W participate less than M in groups that exert power + press. on society

  • E.g. only 3 female PMs, only 34% of MPs are W, etc.
• Weber: Barron & Norris

  • Proposed to explain social stratification ➡️ adapted to explain gender inequality
  • Argues that the labour market is divided into 1º & 2º
  • 1º = Secure + well-paid jobs
  • 2º = Low-paid jobs w/ poor job security + promotion prospects
• Weber AO3: Evidence suggesting the existence of a dual labour market?

  1. M dominate authoritative positions
  2. There's statistical evidence of vertical/horizontal segregation
  3. Still evidence of W being at a disadvantage despite higher aspirations + qualifications
• Weber AO3: Evidence disproving the existence of a dual labour market:

  1. Doesn't differentiate between diff. jobs in diff. sectors
  2. Doesn't explain why some groups have more status than others
  3. PMs say there's no longer any consensus on whats high/low class
• TNR: Phyllis Schafly


  • Said gender inequality was due to biological diffs. between M/W
  • Strong advocate of trad. family values
  • Said Feminist push for equality was unnecessary
  • Views were tied to Christian conservatism
• TNR AO3: Critiquing Phyllis Schafly

  • TNR praises a 'golden age' that never really existed
  • Ignores negative effects of gender roles
  • 'Biologically-determined roles' has never been proven
• Liberal Feminism: Ann Oakley

  4 Methods of socialising children into gender roles:

  1. Verbal appellations = Gendered nicknames e.g. 'sweet girl', 'naughty boy'
  2. Canalisation = Channelling kids' interests into activities/games appropriate for their gender
  3. Manipulation = Manipulating kids into behaviour appropriate for their gender
  4. Diff. activities = Boys encouraged to do risky activities, girls encouraged to be more passive + stay home