protein synthesis

• The RNA molecule produced during transcription is called messenger RNA (mRNA) and carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.
• Introns are non-coding sequences found between exons.
• mRNA has three main regions: the 5' cap, coding region (exons), and poly(A) tail.
• The mRNA molecule is the template that determines which amino acids are added to the growing polypeptide chain.
• Transcription is the process by which the information in a DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence.
• Translation occurs on ribosomes, which are composed of two subunits that can join together or separate as needed.
• During translation, mRNA binds to transfer RNA (tRNA), which brings amino acids to the ribosome.
• Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon sequence complementary to one codon on the mRNA strand.
• Exons are coding regions that contain instructions for making proteins.
• Splicing is the process by which introns are removed from precursor mRNA, leaving only the exons behind.
• Translation occurs when the mRNA binds to a ribosome and tRNAs bring amino acids to form a polypeptide chain according to the sequence of codons on the mRNA.
• Translation involves deciphering the mRNA code into amino acid sequence using tRNAs as adaptors.
• Each tRNA molecule can carry only one specific type of amino acid.
• tRNA molecules have an anticodon that matches with codons on mRNA.
• Translation involves deciphering the code on the mRNA by matching codons with specific tRNAs carrying their corresponding anticodon.
• Describe the structure of nucleotides. A) Phosphate B) Deoxyribose C) Nitrogenous base
• Define the term "complementary" in relation to DNA.
• Explain how DNA is made up of two strands held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases (A-T, G-C).
• State the names of the five nitrogenous bases found in DNA.
• • Describe the structure of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA), and a nitrogenous base. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines with a double-ring structure, while cytosine (C), thymine (T, in DNA), and uracil (U, in RNA) are pyrimidines with a single-ring structure.
• Describe the semi-conservative replication of DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle.
• Outline the stages of mitosis.
• Describe the role of centrosomes in mitotic spindles.
• List the main events that take place during interphase.
• Draw diagrams showing the changes that occur at different stages of mitosis.
• Define sister chromatids.
• Explain how chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.
• Define metaphase plate.
• Define the term "mitosis".
• Explain how chromatids separate to form two identical daughter cells.
• State the number of chromosomes present in human diploid cells.
• Explain why it is important to have two copies of each gene in eukaryotes.
• State what happens to DNA during mitosis.
• Identify the two types of cell division.
• Give an example of when mitosis occurs.
• Describe what happens when spindle fibres attach to centromeres.
• State why it is important that all cells have an equal number of chromosomes.
• Describe what happens during cytokinesis.
• State the purpose of cytokinesis.