memory

• AQA GCSE Psychology Memory chapter covers topics such as different types of memory, how memories are encoded and stored, and the processes of memory.
• Memory is defined as the encoding, storage and the retrieval of stored information once needed.
• There are three forms of encoding used within memory which are: Acoustic encoding, Visual encoding, and Semantic encoding.
• The three types of retrieval systems used by memory are: Recall, Recognition, and Re-learning.
• Memory can generally be divided into the following types: Episodic memory, Semantic memory, and Procedural memory.
• Episodic memory refers to memories of personal events or experiences you may have had in your life that are personal to you, such as places you visited or events that happened.
• An example of episodic memory could be when you remember personal events or experiences or a holiday you had taken last year.
• Semantic memory is a memory for facts and general knowledge, such as the meaning of words.
• An example of semantic memory is knowledge about the meaning of words.
• Procedural memory is the memory that helps us recall information on complicated skills, such as riding a bike, swimming, or tying our shoelaces.
• Procedural memory is believed to be stored using a motor code rather than a verbal code, which is why children need to be shown how to do tasks such as riding a bike or swimming, rather than having it explained to them.
• Encoding is the processing of information in some form into our memory.
• Research into how memories are encoded have focused on three forms of encoding: Acoustic encoding, Visual encoding, and Semantic encoding.
• Murdock's study involved participants given lists of words to remember, which lacks ecological validity due to its artificial setup and potentially invalid findings.
• The study involved students who were all of a similar age and studying a psychology course, which raises the question as to whether the results can be generalised across different age groups or people of different backgrounds.
• The students were required to repeat the study over 80 times, which could have affected their genuine effort levels meaning their recollection or efforts could have been affected by low motivation.
• Bartlett proposed the reconstructive explanation of memory and suggested memory was not simply a recording device as initially thought, but instead memories were "reconstructed" and interpreted to fit in with the hopes, fears, emotions and previous experiences of individuals.
• Bartlett's study "The war of the ghosts" tested the reconstructive explanation for memory through a game of "Chinese whispers", where students were asked to pass on a story they are told to the next student.
• The story told in Bartlett's study was a Native American story which was culturally very different from what western students would be familiar to.
• Students in Bartlett's study altered the story to make it fit into their own experiences and culture, for example, canoes were changed to cars, bows and arrows changed to guns, and the ordering of the story was also changed.
• The results of Bartlett's study appear to support the reconstructive explanations of memory which suggests memory is altered to fit in with individuals rather than a recording of events.
• The model also explains everyday aspects of our memory and why we may have "failures" and why we do not accurately recall everything as they occur.
• This study helps us understand why people may remember events incorrectly as it may be down to errors in reconstruction rather than wilful attempts to mislead or malfunctions in processing.
• Acoustic encoding is the holding of information in your memory in the form of sound, such as repeating a mobile phone number to maintain the memory until you can write it down on paper.
• The study and findings may lack validity as students may have consciously change the story or intentionally change it due to demand characteristics and wanting to make the story more entertaining.
• The reconstructive memory model makes predicting behaviour difficult and a good explanation for memory should make prediction possible for it to have credibility.
• The reconstructive model of memory does not predict how experiences or emotions can affect memories but simply gives principles of how reconstruction may work.
• Bartlett’s war of the ghosts story demonstrated that memory was not an accurate recording of what was happening.
• Bartlett believed that memory was an active process that involved “effort after meaning” which means people try to make sense of something they are unfamiliar with after it has happened into things we already know and understand about how the world works.
• Due to this process, Bartlett believed we often change our memories into versions that are more sensible to us and this involves us making assumptions or guesses on what has or should have happened.
• There are two types of interference that can occur which can affect memory: proactive interference and retroactive interference.
• Proactive interference is when an old memory interferes with something a person is trying to remember now.
• Retroactive interference is when a new memory interferes with old memories.
• False memories can affect recollection.
• Research has shown that false memories can easily be planted into people.
• Context is believed to be another factor that affects the accuracy of memory.
• When we encode information, we may also encode the things around us as part of the memory itself such as the sights, sounds, smells and textures etc.
• Each encoded memory is then associated with different elements of context and when we are put back in that context, those associations are recreated and they stimulate different elements of the memory aiding in recall.
• Visual encoding is when we process information visually in the form of a picture in our mind, such as visualising the size of your garden to answer a question about it.
• Semantic encoding is a process whereby you visualise them and begin to ask yourself their names; you are digging deeper to understand the meanings behind this visual image you see in your mind.