Cold Environments

• What are cold environments and how much of Earth’s surface do they cover?

  • Cold environments are areas with below-freezing temperatures and harsh conditions
  • They cover around 25% of the Earth’s surface
• What are the two types of cold environments?

  • Polar: Found at the poles (e.g. Antarctica, Arctic), permanently frozen, minimal life
  • Tundra: Found at high latitudes (e.g. northern Canada, Russia), has permafrost and a short growing season
• Describe the main features of polar regions

  • Very little precipitation

  • Soil permanently covered in ice

  • Temperatures mostly below freezing

  • Wildlife: Polar bears, penguins, seals, whales

  • Plants: Few, mostly moss and algae

  
• Describe the main features of tundra regions

  • Low precipitation

  • Soil high in organic matter but too cold for decomposition

  • Temperature: -12°C to -6°C in winter

  • Fauna: Arctic foxes, caribou, musk-ox

  • Flora: No trees, small flowering plants bloom in short summer

  
• What are the key differences between polar and tundra environments?

  • Soil: Polar = frozen year-round; Tundra = permafrost, high in organics

  • Flora: Tundra has some plant growth in summer; Polar has few species

  • Fauna: Tundra has more land animals; Polar dominated by marine mammals

  • Climate: Polar is colder and drier
• Why is biodiversity low in cold environments?

  The extreme climate, including freezing temperatures, low precipitation, and poor soil quality, makes it hard for many species to survive, resulting in low biodiversity
• How is a polar bear adapted to cold environments?

  • White fur for camouflage and warmth

  • Thick blubber for insulation

  • Greasy coat to shed water

  • Dark skin to absorb heat

  • Large paws with rough texture for walking on snow and ice

  
• How is the bearberry plant adapted to the tundra?

  • Low-growing and short stalks to absorb heat

  • Thick bark and hairs to retain warmth

  • Short roots to absorb water from shallow soil

  • Grows in clumps for shelter from wind

  
• Where is Svalbard located?

  • In the Arctic Ocean, north of mainland Norway, in Europe. It is the most northerly inhabited group of islands in the world
• What are the four main opportunities for development in Svalbard?

  • Mineral extraction
  • energy development
  • fishing
  • tourism
• How is mineral extraction an opportunity in Svalbard?

  • Svalbard has rich coal reserves.

  • It is the main economic activity.

  • Provides over 300 jobs.

  • Example: Lunckefjell coal mine near Svea
• How is energy development an opportunity in Svalbard?

  • Coal is used to generate electricity at Longyearbyen power station.

  • Future: Geothermal energy (due to Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and carbon capture are possible sustainable options.
• How is fishing an opportunity in Svalbard?

  • Cold Barents Sea is one of the world’s richest fishing grounds.

  • Home to 150+ species (e.g., cod, herring).

  • Jointly managed by Norway and Russia to ensure sustainability
• How is tourism an opportunity in Svalbard?

  • Attracts 70,000+ visitors a year.

  • Provides around 300 jobs.
• What are the main challenges of development in Svalbard?

  1. Extreme temperatures
  2. Inaccessibility
  3. Construction
  4. Services
• Why is temperature a challenge in Svalbard?

  • Winter temperatures fall below -30°C.

  • Exposure risk for workers.

  • Hard to work outdoors, especially during long dark winters.

  • Clothing must be worn in layers, limiting movement
• Why is construction difficult in Svalbard?

  • Permafrost (frozen ground) makes building foundations unstable.

  • Construction is only possible in summer when the ground softens.

  • Roads must be raised to prevent thawing of permafrost.
• Why is inaccessibility a challenge in Svalbard?

  • Remote location (Arctic Ocean, north of mainland Norway).

  • Travel is difficult – only 50 km of road in Longyearbyen.

  • Most travel is by snowmobiles or boats.

  • Sea/air transport disrupted by weather
• Why are services hard to deliver in Svalbard?

  • Water, electricity, sanitation, and heating are vital in extreme cold.

  • Infrastructure is above ground to avoid melting permafrost.

  • Expensive and technically difficult to maintain
• Why are cold environments considered environmentally fragile?

  Because any small change can have a large impact. They take a long time to recover, and in some cases, may never recover
• Name human activities that threaten cold environments

  • Tourism
  • fishing and whaling
  • infrastructure and development
  • air and water pollution
  • resource exploitation
• Why is it important to protect cold environments like Antarctica?

  They are untouched wilderness areas, home to unique species, and valuable for scientific research (e.g. climate change)
• Why is fishing and whaling a threat to cold environments?

  • Overfishing reduces fish populations and disrupts food chains.
  • Whaling endangers species and reduces biodiversity.
  • Fishing boats may cause oil spills and pollute the water.
  • Nets and gear may damage fragile marine ecosystems.
• Why is tourism a threat to cold environments?

  • Tourists can trample vegetation like mosses and lichens.
  • Wildlife is disturbed by noise and presence of people.
  • Increased waste and litter pollutes fragile ecosystems.
  • Building tourist facilities (e.g. hotels, paths) damages land.
• How does air and water pollution threaten cold environments?

  • Oil spills from ships harm marine life.
  • Ship accidents can release toxic chemicals.
  • Air pollution from vehicles and industry adds to climate change.
  • Pollution disrupts food chains and contaminates water sources
• Why is resource exploitation a threat to cold environments?

  • Mining and drilling cause habitat destruction.
  • Off-road vehicles and machinery damage vegetation and compact soil.
  • Melting permafrost is triggered by construction, releasing greenhouse gases.
  • Waste and chemicals can pollute land and water
• How does infrastructure and development harm cold environments?

  • Roads and pipelines disrupt habitats and migration routes.
  • Construction causes soil erosion and permafrost thawing.
  • Increased human activity leads to pollution and waste.
  • Settlements can fragment ecosystems and increase resource demand.
• How do conservation groups help protect cold environments?

  • Conservation groups are organisations that work to protect biodiversity and natural ecosystems.
  • For example: WWF (World Wildlife Fund) launched the Arctic Programme in 1992 to monitor and protect Arctic species, including polar bears and ecosystems.
  • This will protect cold environments because they raise awareness, influence policies, and promote sustainable practices.
  • Limitations: Conservation groups rely on funding and may lack the legal power to enforce protection.
• How is technology used to manage cold environments sustainably?

  • Technology can be used to minimise environmental damage while allowing development.
  • For example: In Alaska, the Trans-Alaskan pipeline is raised on stilts to prevent the melting of permafrost.
  • This protects cold environments because it reduces heat transfer to the ground and limits disruption to ecosystems.
  • Limitations: It is expensive, and not all countries can afford or maintain these solutions.
• What role do international agreements play in protecting cold environments?

  • International agreements are global treaties that regulate human activity to protect fragile environments.
  • For example: The 1959 Antarctic Treaty only allows peaceful scientific research and bans military use and nuclear waste disposal.
  • This protects cold environments because it prevents exploitation and pollution of untouched areas like Antarctica.
  • Limitations: Enforcement can be difficult, and not all nations may comply fully.
• How do governments protect cold environments?

  • Governments can create laws and reserves to limit development and protect habitats.
  • For example: In Alaska, the Western Arctic Reserve was created to protect land from oil and gas extraction.
  • This protects cold environments because it controls industrial activity and preserves biodiversity.
  • Limitations: Economic pressure (e.g. oil demand) may lead to policy changes or weak enforcement.