Research Method

• An aim is a general statement that describes the purpose of an investigation usually starts with ''to investigate.''
• A hypothesis is a clear and precise statement which predicts the relationship between the variables. Should be written in the future tense, using the phrase ''there will be''.
• A null hypothesis predicts there will be no difference found between the variables. E.g there will be no difference between listening to music and exam performance.
• An alternative hypothesis predicts there will be a difference found between the variables and can be directional or no directional.
• Directional states the direction of the relationship will include words such as faster, slower, more or less, increases and decreases.(one tailed).
• Non-directional does not state the direction of the relationship between variables would simply say there is a difference or affects.(two-tailed )
• Control group are those who do not experience anything.
• Experimental group are those who are exposed to the independent variable and an effect is evident.
• Operationalization is when the variables are clearly defined and measurable in a numerical way by making them more specific.
• Why is it important to establish cause and effect?


  Or else you will have inconclusive results meaning other variables may have caused a change in the dependent variable.
• Extraneous variables are factors that are not manipulated as part of an experiment, but they may exert some influence on the dependent variable.
• Confounding variable which affects only one level of IV(one condition/participants).You can no longer make comparisons between participants and results become invalid. So things like health problems which are within participants.
• Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable which occur when participants become aware of a study's aims due to cues from the researcher or research design.
• Participants in demand characteristics will often:

  • Act in the way they think is expected and overperform to please researcher.
  • Act deliberately or underperform to sabotage the results of the study
  • Act in a way which is most socially acceptable=Social Desirability Bias.
• Examples of demand characteristics: Gestures, tone of voice, location, instructions or the study design.
• Another type of extraneous variable is Investigator Effects which occur when the researcher unconsciously or unconsciously influences the participants' behavior.
• These include:

  • Expectancy effects(giving away what you hope to find)
  • Unconscious cues(nodding,smiling,frowning)
  • Factors relating to the study's design(participants or material)
• To identify extraneous variables we conduct pilot studies which are small-scale trial runs of a research study before conducting the real-thing.
• Pilot studies aim to:

  • Test whether each part of an experiment works
  • Identify extraneous variables that need to be controlled for
  • Save a bigger investment of time and money.
• A control group is a group that is not exposed to the manipulation of the IV to establish a baseline result. Helps to establish cause and effect.
• Standardisation of a procedure ensuring all participants within an investigation are subject to the same environment,information and experience.
• Mundane realism describes the degree to which materials and procedures reflect events that occur in the real world.
• Generalisation is the extent to which findings of a study can be applicable to other settings.
• Reliability refers to how consistent and easily replicated a procedure or findings are.
• Validity is the extent to which a test measures what is supposed to be measured truthfully and accurately.
• Internal validity is a measure of whether results obtained are solely affected by changes in the variable being manipulated.
• External validity is a measure of whether data can be generalised to other situations outside of the research environment.
• Ecological validity -If the findings can be generalised to real-life settings.
• Population validity- If results can be generalised to other people.
• Temporal validity- If results can be generalised to other time periods.
• Independent group design is when participants are each allocated different conditions meaning they only experience one condition.
• Advantage of Independent Group:

  • There are no order effects
• Advantage of independent group:

  • Participants are less likely to guess aim
• Disadvantage of Independent group:

  • Risk of participant variables affecting results so it is not obvious if the DV is affected by the IV or the participants.
• Solution to independent design:

  • Use random allocation to distribute participant variables evenly.
• A repeated measures design is when all participants experience both conditions of the experiment.
• Advantage of Repeated Measures:

  • Participants won't be subject to participant variables.
• Advantage of Repeated Measures:

  • No extra participants so saves time and money.
• Disadvantage of Repeated Measures:

  • Order effects may have an impact on results
• Disadvantage of Repeated Measures:

  • Could create boredom or fatigue, causing a deterioration in performance.