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• What are the three genera of spirochaetes associated with human infections?

  Treponema, Borrelia, Leptospira

  
• What are the morphological characteristics of spirochaetes?

  • Extremely narrow and elongated
  • Cylindrical shape with spiral tight coils
  • Tapered ends
  • Actively motile with rotational movement
• What type of flagella do spirochaetes possess?

  Internal flagella, also called endoflagella
• What are the alternative names for internal flagella in spirochaetes?

  Endoflagella, periplasmic flagella, axial fibrils, axial filaments
• How do spirochaetes achieve locomotion?

  Contraction and relaxation of internal flagella
• What structural characteristics do spirochaetes share with Gram-negative organisms?

  Similar structural characteristics

  
• What is a key difference between spirochaetes and typical Gram-negative organisms?

  Lack of cell wall lipopolysaccharide

  
• Which staining methods can be used for some Treponema species?

  Modified Gram’s stain and Wright’s stain
• What are the non-pathogenic species of Treponema and their characteristics?

  • Part of human bacterial normal flora
  • Small percentage in mouth and genital tract
  • Saprophytic species for laboratory studies
  • Includes Reiter’s strain and Nichol’s strain

  
• What is the main pathogenic species of Treponema?

  Treponema pallidum

  
• How can Treponema species be differentiated in serological tests?

  By geographical location, clinical manifestations, genetics

  
• Why is Treponema pallidum difficult to visualize under a light microscope?

  Too narrow for Gram’s stain detection
• What special methods are used to visualize Treponema pallidum?

  1. Dark field microscopy
  2. Fluorescence staining and microscopy
  3. Special staining in infected tissues
  4. Electron microscope
• How does Treponema pallidum grow in the laboratory?

  Does not grow artificially in culture media
• What are the significant physical properties of Treponema pallidum?

  Delicate and loses viability quickly
• What stimulates the immune system during Treponema pallidum infection?

  Infection results in antibody production
• What type of antibody reacts with cardiolipin?

  Wasserman’s, reagin, lipoidophil, anticardiolipin antibodies
• What is the primary disease caused by Treponema pallidum pallidum?

  Syphilis
• What are the main methods of transmission for Treponema pallidum pallidum?

  1. Sexual transmission
  2. Vertical transmission
  3. Blood transfusion

  
• What is the incubation period for syphilis after exposure?

  Person is not infectious during this period
• What are the clinical manifestations of primary syphilis?

  • Localized invasion of mucous membranes
  • Papule develops at the site of entry
  • Forms a painless ulcer called chancre
  • Associated with enlarged inguinal lymph nodes

  
• How long does the primary sore heal without intervention?

  3 to 8 weeks
• What characterizes secondary syphilis?

  • Large number of spirochaetes in blood
  • Widespread dissemination to various tissues
  • Varied manifestations including skin rash and ulcers

  
• What are condylomata lata?

  Wart-like lesions in secondary syphilis
• What are the possible outcomes of secondary syphilis?

  1. Healing without treatment
  2. Development of latent syphilis
  3. Progression to tertiary syphilis

  
• What are the manifestations of tertiary syphilis?

  • Chronic inflammatory swellings (gummas)
  • Occur on skin, mucous membranes, bones
  • Rarely detect T. pallidum in lesions
• What are the implications of late stage syphilis?

  1. Affects cardiovascular system
  2. Involves central nervous system (neurosyphilis)
  3. Can lead to severe functional abnormalities

  
• What is latent syphilis?

  Dormant disease without clinical manifestations
• What are the manifestations of congenital syphilis?

  • Death of fetus
  • Miscarriage
  • Developmental abnormalities
  • Latent infection
  • Symptoms within first two years

  
• What specimens are examined for syphilis diagnosis?

  1. Exudate from infected tissues
  2. Blood
  3. Cerebrospinal fluid
  4. Infected tissue

  
• What are the examination procedures for syphilis diagnosis?

  • Tests to detect organism and antibodies
  • Demonstration of T. pallidum in specimens

  
• What is the VDRL test used for?

  Detecting anticardiolipin antibody
• What are the two categories of serological tests for syphilis?

  1. Non-treponemal tests (non-specific)
  2. Treponemal tests (specific)

  
• What is the main use of non-treponemal tests?

  Screening tests for syphilis

  
• What are treponemal tests used for?

  • Confirmatory tests for syphilis
  • Detect specific antibodies to treponemal antigens

  
• What is the most commonly used antimicrobial agent for Treponema pallidum pallidum?

  Penicillin
• What factors are considered in choosing antimicrobial treatment for syphilis?

  • Patient factors
  • Clinical stage of syphilis
  • Choice of antimicrobial agent
  • Dose and route of administration
• What methods are effective for preventing Treponema pallidum pallidum infection?

  • Screening clients for STIs
  • General methods for STI prevention

  
• What is the T. pallidum haemagglutination assay (TPHA)?

  A test for syphilis detection

  
• What does the Fluorescent Treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS) detect?

  Antibodies for syphilis