observations

• Outline the observational method

  An observation involves a researcher watching and recording the behaviour of participants. Recordings are made by forming behavioural categories and using event or time sampling to tally when a behaviour occurs. Observations can be carried out in the moment and setting that the behaviour is displayed and/or can be video recorded for later analysis.
• Define behavioural categories and explain how they improve observational research.

  Behavioural categories refer to the operationalised behaviours (e.g. punching, kicking) that represent the general behaviour being

  observed (e.g. aggression).
• What is the purpose of behavioural categories?

  🟢 They ensure observers collect relevant data by providing a clear focus on what behaviours to tally.
• How do behavioural categories improve objectivity in data recording?

  🟢 They remove the need for subjective interpretation, ensuring clear and consistent definitions of behaviours.
• How do behavioural categories increase inter-observer reliability?

  🟢 They provide clear guidelines on what to record, ensuring consistency between observers.
• How do behavioural categories help in tallying observations?

  🟢 They allow observers to quickly and efficiently tally behaviours into pre-arranged groupings
• How do behavioural categories help with data analysis?

  🟢 They make recordings easier to quantify, analyse, and compare by standardising the way data is collected.
• Event Sampling

  observers decide on behavioural categories. These are recorded every time they happen throughout the entire observational period.
• Time sampling

  observers decide on behavioural categories. Recordings of these behavioural categories take place at specific time intervals e.g. every 5 minutes. Working out the procedures for time sampling are as follows: Total observation time (in minutes) Number of observations made
• What is a strength of event sampling?

  🟢 It is likely to result in more data as observers record every occurrence of a behavioural category, reducing the chance of missing important behaviours and increasing validity.
• What is the limitation of event sampling?

  🔴 It is less appropriate in busy observations because observers may become overwhelmed by recording every behaviour, questioning its appropriateness.
• What is a strength of time sampling?

  🟢 It is more appropriate in busy observations as observers can take breaks between observation times, reducing the likelihood of becoming overwhelmed and increasing appropriateness.
• What is a limitation of time sampling?

  🔴 It is likely to result in less data as observers record only at specified intervals, meaning important behaviours may be missed, questioning the validity of conclusions drawn.
• what is the formula for time sampling


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• What is a strength of naturalistic observations?

  🟢 Participants are more likely to behave naturally as they are observed in their usual environment, increasing ecological validity and adding to the appropriateness of naturalistic observations.
• What is a limitation of naturalistic observations?

  🔴 There is a lack of control over the environment, making replication difficult and questioning the reliability and credibility of the findings.

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• naturalistic observation

  The observer watches and records the behaviour of participants in a

  natural environment where it would usually occur.
• controlled observation

  The observer watches and records the behaviour of participants in a

  highly controlled environment e.g. in an observation room.
• What is a limitation of controlled observations?

  🔴 Participants are less likely to behave naturally as they are observed in a highly controlled environment, reducing ecological validity and questioning the appropriateness of controlled observations.
• What is a strength of controlled observations?

  🟢 There is a high level of control over the environment, making it easier to replicate the observation and check the reliability of findings, adding to the credibility of controlled observations.
• Overt observartion

  The observer is clearly visible. This means that the people being observed are aware they are being observed.
• covert observation

  The observer is not clearly visible. This means that the people being

  observed are not aware they are being observed.
• What is a limitation of overt observations?

  🔴 Participants’ behaviour is less likely to be natural as they are aware of being observed, which may lead to social desirability bias, questioning the validity of the findings.
• What is a strength of overt observations

  🟢 They are typically more ethical as participants are aware of being observed, allowing them to provide informed consent and exercise the right to withdraw, adding to the appropriateness of overt observations.
• What is a strength of covert observations?

  🟢 Participants' behavior is more likely to be natural because they are unaware they are being observed, reducing social desirability bias and increasing validity.
• What is a limitation of covert observations?

  🔴 They may be considered unethical as participants are unaware they are being observed, meaning they cannot provide informed consent or withdraw, questioning appropriateness.
• Participant Observation

  The observer becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they

  are watching and recording.
• Non-participant Observation

  The observer watches and records the behaviour of the people they are

  observing from a distance and therefore does not interact with them.
• What is a strength of participant observations?

  🟢 They allow greater insight into observed behaviours because the observer joins the group, gaining a deeper understanding and increasing validity.
• What is a limitation of participant observations?

  🔴 The researcher may become overly involved, leading to distraction, lack of objectivity, and subjective data, decreasing the appropriateness of participant observations.
• What is a limitation of non-participant observations?

  🔴 The observer may lose valuable insight as they are too far removed, leading to a lack of deep understanding and decreased validity.
• What is a strength of non-participant observations?

  🟢 The researcher remains objective and does not become overly involved, reducing bias and increasing the appropriateness of the observation.

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