Earth Science

• Igneous rocks - It is formed when hot molten rock (magma or lava) undergoes cooling and crystallization (solidification).
• Mafic rocks - dark-colored igneous rocks containing relatively high concentrations of magnesium and iron and a low proportion of silica (SiO2, roughly about 45-51%).
• Felsic rocks - light-colored igneous rods containing feldspar and a high proportion of silica, which is roughly more than 65%.
• Intermediate rocks - igneous rocks between mafic and felsic, containing an intermediate (52-65%) proportion of silica.
• Ultramafic rocks - very dark-colored igneous rocks containing magnesium and iron and a very small portion of silica.
• Intrusive igneous rocks (also known as Plutonic igneous rocks) are hardened magma formed beneath Earth. These rocks cool slowly. Examples are granite and gabbro. It has coarse grain.
• Extrusive igneous rocks (also known as volcanic igneous rocks) are hardened lava. These rocks cool quickly. Examples are basalt, obsidian, and scoria. It has fine grain.
• Sedimentary rocks - formed from preexisting rocks or organic materials (dead organisms).
• Clastic sedimentary rocks - undergo weathering and erosion and are formed from the accumulation of clasts (little pieces of broken rocks and shells) caused by mining.
• Organic rocks - formed from the accumulation of materials from living things or products of living things that have undergone the process of weathering and erosion.
• Chemical rocks - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
• Metamorphic rocks - formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to pressure, heat, and volatiles.
• foliated - this type of metamorphic rock has layers.
• non-foliated - this type of metamorphic rock does not have layers.
• Mining - set of processes of extracting/withdrawing mineral resources.
• Exploration - the first stage in the mining cycle, wherein geologists search for areas that contain mineral resources viable for mining
• Prospecting - the process wherein the land's geology is evaluated for mineral deposits. This process is done to identify any geohazards and to check the environmental data, including the groundwater and other factors that may cause challenges in the excavation of the minerals.
• Drilling - It involves core drilling by using a diamond drill to collect core samples from the area and examine the type and grade of the minerals in the ground.
• Modeling - the process wherein the collected data from various surveys and combined data from a geologic survey and physical and chemical testing are used to create a map to identify the location of the ores with different grades and concentrations.
• Development and design - the process wherein the site is assessed if can be operated in an environmentally safe, economically sound, and socially responsible manner.
• Scoping - it is done to identify if the scope of the mining operation should involve only the extraction of the ore or if it will include the processing of the ore.
• Feasibility studies - involves identifying the resources needed to operate the mine and checking if the materials extracted have potential buyers.
• Procurement option of necessary facilities and equipment - it includes the materials and facilities need for the operation of the mine.
• Production - the stage where the actual extracting of the minerals from the surface of Earth and processing such as separating unwanted impurities from the mineral ore occur.
• Closure and reclamation - the process of closing the mine and returning the land to its original state.
• Comminution - a reduction process of ore particles from large-sized particles to smaller-sized particles (power form) via crushing, grinding, vibrating, cutting, or other reducing processes.
• Dredging - an underwater excavation of placer deposits through the use of floating equipment to remove silt and other materials from underneath water bodies.
• Dewatering - a process of the removal of superficial water (any body of water above the ground) and groundwater from mining sites before excavations to protect materials and keep a safe workplace.
• Underground mines - are more expensive and are often used to reach higher depth deposits (type of mining).
• Shrinkage stoping - a less expensive and safe technique wherein the broken ore is temporarily retained in the slope.
• The stopes are the openings of large underground rooms (shrinkage stoping).
• Room and pillar - a type of mining that is typically used for mining coal. It is usually done in flat-bedded ore bodies.
• Surface mines - are usually used for more shallow depth and less valuable deposits (type of mining).
• Strip mining - involves the removal of soil and rock materials above a layer or seam, followed by the extraction of the mineral, also called overburden.
• Open-pit mining (also called mega-mining, open-cast, or open-cut mining) - a technique of extracting minerals from Earth by the removal of the mineral deposits from an open-air pit.
• Mountaintop removal mining - a type of surface mining. It is an extremely destructive type of mining because it involves blasting up to 120 meters of the mountain via the use of explosives.
• Placer mining - done by separating the valuable metals from sediments in river channels, beach sands, or water bodies.
• In-situ mining (also known as solution mining) - primarily used in mining uranium. This involves pumping fluid, such as lixivants (a liquid medium to selectively extract ore minerals), underground and dissolving the mineral resource in place.
• Fossil fuels - world's primary energy source
• Fossil fuels - the most common nonrenewable source of energy