Topic 1

• drogen bonds to break and the active site to change shape and therefore enzyme substrate complexes won't form and the rate decreases for substrate concentration if there is a higher substrate concentration then there are more enzyme substrate complexes forming and the rate increases but if there is too high a substrate concentration then the enzyme can't accommodate all of the substrate molecules and the rate decreases for enzyme concentration if there is a higher enzyme concentration then there are more enzyme substrate complexes forming and the rate increases but if there is too high an enz
• The test for proteins involves adding Bioret, which is blue in color, and if a protein is present, it will change to purple.
• For lipids, the test involves dissolving the sample in ethanol and then adding distilled water, with a positive result being white in color and described as an emulsion.
• DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid functions as the sequence of amino acids in the primary structure, containing the genetic code and can be passed on to make new cells or to the next generation.
• DNA is a polymer, formed by two polymer chains joining together to create a double helix, with the monomer being a phosphate group attached to a pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base.
• RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid, is almost identical in shape or structure to DNA, but has ribose instead of deoxyribose as the pentose sugar, uracil instead of thymine, and is shorter and single-stranded.
• RNA also functions in the creation of ribosomes, with a particular molecule called rRNA combining with proteins to make ribosomes.
• DNA replication is necessary for new cells to be created, with the dna must replicate before a new cell can be created.
• DNA replication is semi-conservative, with one of the original strands of dna combining with one newly synthesized strand to create the new molecule.
• ATP, or Adenosine Triphosphate, is a nucleotide derivative, similar in structure to dna and rna, with three phosphate groups, ribose, and adenine.
• ATP functions as an immediate source of energy for biological processes, used in metabolism.
• Starch and cellulose are both found in plants but have different functions: starch is a store of glucose that provides chemical energy, while cellulose is structural strength in the cell wall.
• Glycogen is the only polysaccharide found in animals and is a store of glucose mainly found in the liver and muscle cells.
• Starch and glycogen are both made from alpha glucose, but cellulose is made from beta-glucose.
• Starch is made up of one to four and one to six glucose isomers, while glycogen has both one to four and one to six isomers.
• Amylose, one of the polysaccharides of starch, only has one to four isomers, while amylopectin has both one to four and one to six isomers.
• Cellulose only contains one to four glycosidic bonds, forming long straight chains that line up in parallel and are held together by hydrogen bonds.
• Glycogen has a higher proportion of one to six glycosidic bonds, making it more branched and more readily hydrolyzed back into glucose.
• Triglycerides and phospholipids are both made up of a glycerol molecule and fatty acid chains, but phospholipids have a phosphate group attached to the glycerol molecule.
• Triglycerides form through three condensation reactions, losing one water molecule between each fatty acid and the glycerol, while phospholipids form through a condensation reaction, losing two water molecules between the fatty acid and the glycerol.
• The bond that forms in triglycerides is called an ester.
• A triglyceride is a lipid with three ester bonds.
• Fatty acids in triglycerides can be either saturated or unsaturated.
• Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between any of the carbon atoms, making them fully saturated and holding the maximum amount of hydrogen.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond between the carbon atoms.
• Triglycerides function as an energy store due to the large ratio of energy storing carbon to hydrogen bonds and the high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms.
• Phospholipids are structurally similar to triglycerides, but have a phosphate group attached to the glycerol, giving them different properties.
• The phosphate group in phospholipids has a negative charge, attracting water but repelling lipids.
• The fatty acid chain in phospholipids is hydrophobic, repelling water but able to mix with other fats or lipids.
• Phospholipids can form a bi layer in water, positioning the heads on the outside exposed to the water and the tails facing each other.
• Protein zen are another example of polymers, made up of amino acids which are the monomers.
• The general structure of an amino acid includes a central carbon, a hydrogen atom, and an r group that changes for all 20 different amino acids.
• The amine group or amino group, represented as nh2, is always present in amino acids.
• The carboxyl group, represented as c double bond o o h, is also always present in amino acids.
• To make a dipeptide, which means two amino acids bonded together, it would be a condensation reaction, removing water and forming a peptide bond.
• To make a polypeptide, which means multiple amino acids joined together, it would require multiple condensation reactions.
• The primary structure of a protein is modified into the secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure.
• Monomers are smaller units which can create larger molecules.
• Polymers are made from lots of monomers which are bonded together.
• Examples of monomers include glucose, amino acids, and nucleotides.