Attitude , prejudice and stereotypes

• Attitude = defined as a learned response to a person or an object in either a favourable or an unfavourable way .
• Formation of attitude - through social learning

  1. attitude formation through classical conditioning = involves learning based on association . child notices parent show various signs of discomfort and displeasure everytime they see a particular neighbour . This indicates the parents negative attitude towards the neighbour . initially , the child is neutral . But after seeing the repeated negative reactions towards the neighbour , classical conditioning occurs .
• child learns to associate the negative reaction of the parent with the neighbour . so the child also acquires a negative attitude towards the neighbour
• 2. through operant conditioning = involves learning and repeating of all those responses or behaviours that are followed by rewards and avoiding those responses that are followed by punishments .

  suppose the child is scolded by the parent on greeting the neighbour . so , the child will gradually learn to display similar behaviour of displeasure like the parent towards the neighbour . this behaviour will definitely be approved .
• 3. through modeling =
• 3. through modeling = individual learns attitude by observing behaviour of others or modeling or imitating them . learning through observation is greater when models are perceived as powerful , warm and supportive . in family or social env. , child often imitates the behaviour of parents , relatives and friends . the child's attitude towards a specific thing is often oriented in accordance to the attitude towards a specific thing of the powerful person of the family .
• example = a child learns or imitates behaviours towards a poor person or person of lower caste in accordance with the attitude of the most powerful person in the family .
• sometimes attitude is formed without any direct experience with the attitude object . this occurs when the individual has heard stories or gathered info about the attitude object by indirect means .
• 4. through social comparison = tendency of a person to compare self to others to determine whether their held views are correct or not . thus people often adjust their views , beliefs or attitudes to make it similar to others whom they value or identify with .
• 5 . through cognitive evaluation = a person receives info then evaluates it and accordingly develops his attitude towards the same . positive attitude is formed when attitude object possesses desirable attributes and vice-versa .
• 6. functional theory of attitude formation = suggests that attitudes are shaped depending on the personal benefits the person has received from the particular situation or thing .
• Ben's self-perception theory = when an individual is uncertain regarding an issue , he depends on his own behaviour for formation of attitude .
• the art of persuasion involves using various kinds of messages or appeals , advice , arguments to influence an individual or a group of people or audience .
• 1. messages that do not seem to intend to persuade the individual to change his attitude , tend to be more persuasive .
• 2. attractive people are better at persuading than unattractive people . Hence , advertisers look for attractive models , moviestars .
• 3. persuasion may be enhanced through the messages that arouse strong emotions among the audience . if the messages contain some kind of fear-generating element , then also it is helpful in changing the attitude .
• 4. fast speakers are apparently better at persuading than people who speak slowly .
• 5. sometimes when people are distracted by some extraneous event and are inattentive to what is being said , they are persuaded more easily .
• There are 2 routes to persuasion , first one is called central route = 1. the individual has adequate knowledge and info about the persuasive message . 2. has a lot of time to think and is motivated to think about it .
• second is called heuristic processing or peripheral route to persuasion . 1. does not have adequate knowledge about the persuasive message . 2. does not deem it very imp to personal life . 3. does not have the time , is distracted or not motivated to think about it elaborately .
• Causes of prejudice = 1. frustration and aggression - when a person is prevented from reaching a target by some people , situation or group , he or she becomes frustrated . this often results in aggression or prejudice towards them . example = an eligible child is not selected by a teacher in a school drama . this may make the child frustrated and prejudiced against the teacher .
• 2. social learning = children acquire prejudices either by hearing or observing their parents , teachers , friends or others expressing prejudiced ideas . are adept in learning the prejudices when they are rewarded or approved by others for expressing the views . mass media like television , movies and newspaper play an active role in shaping the prejudices .
• 3. realistic competition = prejudice emerges from competition among different groups with respect to various opportunities , and valued resources , such as adequate living , proper job , educational prospects , health facilities , etc . various competition leads to rivalry , hatred , prejudice and intergroup conflicts within the society .
• Realistic conflict theory = this theory states that when competition increases , the members of different groups start to view others as enemies . They see themselves as morally superior . this simple competition turns into prejudice .
• 4. social categorisation = people are segregated as either belonging to our own group or belonging to other group . Feeling of us v/s them . such distinctions are based on many dimensions such as religion , race , age , sex , ethnic background , etc . human mind views the members of us group more favourably and the members of the them group more negatively .
• stereotypes propose that all persons belonging to any social group possesses similar traits , atleast to a certain degree
• STEREOTYPES IN INDIAN CONTEXT = 1. gender stereotypes - stereotypes of men towards women and vice-versa . usually men have negative stereotypes about women in relation to physical characteristics , personality traits , professional attitude and many other behavioural aspects . In india , stereotypes about women are usually negative . These are reflected in various social malpractices such as honour killing of women , female foeticide or infanticide , dowry system , domestic violence against women , etc .
• gender bias in India is evident from the very beginning of life of a child . Many people are delighted with the birth of a boy but become sad or indifferent with the birth of a girl . In other aspects of family and social life , a girl child is discriminated against , while a boy child is favoured in the same family environment . Primarily done with respect to allocation of food and facilities , opportunity and expenses towards education , fulfilling ambitions and dreams , etc . All these are compromised for a girl and given priority to a boy .
• 2. caste stereotypes = are false notions and wrong beliefs about one's caste . leads to misinterpretations and intergroup quarrels , conflicts , jealousy among various castes . In india , caste system has been traditionally followed . thousand types of caste and related stereotypes have been present since ancient times . 2 major castes - upper and lower . upper are brahmins , kshatriyas and lower are sudras and untouchables .
• caste system is an obsolete social system that has led to widespread discrimination . majority of higher caste people always harbour stereotypes and prejudices against the people belonging to lower castes . expressed through their discriminatory behaviours like frowning in the presence of a lower caste person , preventing their children to play with children belonging to the lower caste .
• 3. community stereotypes = prejudices and resulting conflicts among various communal groups are generally referred to as community stereotypes . in india , the social distances and communal feelings are very high among the population of various communal groups such as the hindus and the muslims . generally , people belonging to a particular community look down upon members of other communities as inferior , while they judge themselves to be superior .
• WAYS OF RESISTING PREJUDICE = 1. education - makes people tolerant , socially adjusted and adaptive with all groups . helps a person gain knowledge and become enlighted . Enables him/her to judge every other individual as a human being having positive qualities . are more receptive to propaganda and are more flexible than less educated persons .
• 2. propaganda - through newspapers , radio , television , movies is effective in reducing prejudice . studies indicate that auditory stimuli are more effective than visual stimuli ; speakers are more effective than printed material ; rational appeals are more effective than emotional appeal , oral propaganda is more effective in small groups than in larger groups . more effective when the speaker is prestigious . using several communication channels and pictures and cartoons are helpful in combating stereotypes .
• 3. inter-group contact - direct contact with members of other groups help to combat stereotypes and resist prejudice . This fact is suggested by what is called the "contact hypothesis " . increased contact between people belonging to different groups allows them to identify the similarities between them . These similarities generate positive feelings and liking towards the people of other groups .
• intergroup contact may resist prejudice only under certain conditions = a) the groups interacting must belong to more or less of the same social status b) contact must ensure that each group gets to know the members of the out-group individually c) the contact between them must involve cooperation and interdependence .
• 4. learning not to hate - prejudice is learned behaviour . It is elders and parents loaded with biased and coloured viewpoints who transfer the same to their children . as a result , the child too becomes prejudiced . On the other hand , many realize that they are prejudiced . They realise that it is better to develop tolerant attitude as it is adaptive in the long run in the diversified world . Decide to put an end to bigoted views and encourage more positive attitude among themselves , children and others towards groups and communities .