Chapter 16 - The State of International Relations by 1923

• USA economic policies after the war (4)

  1. USA called in loans from former allies after Paris Peace Conference 1919 despite protests from Britain, France, and Belgium whose economic recovery had been slow after the war and because Germany hadn't started paying reparations

  2. Protective tariffs introduced 1921 + 1922

  3. President Harding passed emergency tariff on imported foodstuff

  4. Harding passed a general tariff which cancelled out the lower price of European imports to the USA
• Why did President Harding introduce an emergency tariff on imported foodstuff? (1)


  USA farmers lost their European markets when the war ended, meaning they had too much food and not enough markets, so prices plummeted
• What was the impact of the USA's introduction of protective tariffs internationally (2)

  1. Other nations introduced retaliatory tariffs

  2. This restricted world trade as consumers bought domestic products instead
• Why was the Washington Naval Conference called? (5)

  1. World disarmament had been a part of Wilson's 14 points however only Germany had to disarm under the Treaty of Versailles

  2. Increasing concerns over size of Japanese navy

  3. Anglo-Japanese agreement 1902 due to expire 1922, which would remove safeguard against imbalance in naval strength in the Pacific

  4. Public opinion in many countries was in strong favour of disarmament

  5. Tensions over Japan and USA's spheres of influence in the Pacific was of increasing concern
• What were the agreements made at the Washington Naval Conference? (3)

  1. Four-Power Pact 1921

  2. Five-Power Limitation Treaty 1922

  3. Nine-Power Pact 1922
• Signatories of the Four-Power Pact 1921

  1. USA

  2. Britain

  3. Japan

  4. France
• Terms of the Four-Power Pact (2)

  1. Signatories had to consult each other over disputes in the Pacific

  2. Signatories had to respect each others rights and interests in the Pacific islands
• Signatories of the Five-Power Limitation Treaty 1922

  1. USA

  2. Britain

  3. France

  4. Japan

  5. Italy
• Terms of the Five-Power Limitation Treaty 1922 (3)

  1. Set ratio for number of large warships allowed for each signatory

  2. All other military ships to be scrapped

  3. Signatories had to abandon building of large warships for 10 years
• Signatories of the Nine-Power Pact 1922 (9)

  1. USA

  2. Britain

  3. France

  4. Japan

  5. Belgium

  6. Italy

  7. Netherlands

  8. Portugal

  9. China
• Terms of the Nine-Power Pact (3)

  1. Use of submarines regulated

  2. Deployment of poison gas in warfare banned

  3. China's independence and borders reasserted
• Impact of the communist revolution in Russia on international relations (5)

  1. Russia, as a communist state committed to instigating communist uprisings globally, was a threat to capitalist governments

  2. Communism appealed to lower classes in capitalist countries eg. USA and Britain, therefore threatening upper and middle classes

  3. Communist countries threatened world trade as communism advocated self-sufficiency

  4. Most countries refused to recognise the Bolshevik government + expressed disapproval of regime

  5. Russia not invited to post-war settlements
• Events of the Russian Civil War (3)

  1. Counter-revolutionary forces, known as the Whites, began their attack as soon as the Bolsheviks set up their government

  2. The west intervened on the side of the Whites in an attempt to crush the communist revolution by launching a series of attacks - however they were fruitless as the Red army exploited its home advantages

  3. 1922 -> the Whites were defeated in Siberia + the Bolsheviks claimed control of the country
• Impact of Western intervention in the Russian Civil War (1)

  The west intervened on the side of the Whites, therefore deteriorating relations with Russia
• What was the Red Terror and what was the impact of this? (2)

  1. The brutal treatment of enemies of the revolution by the Bolsheviks

  2. Helped cement the Bolsheviks reputation as tyrants in the west
• What did the Bolsheviks do in 1919? (1)

  Established the Third International (the Comintern) to help coordinate and encourage communist parties in other countries to begin a worldwide communist revolution
• What was the Bolsheviks 'New Economic Policy' 1921? (5)

  1. Introduced following the financial crash due to the civil war

  2. Allowed peasants to sell surplus produce for profit

  3. Permitted some small businesses

  4. Improved the economy

  5. Unpopular with leftist Marxists
• Events of the Polish-Soviet War 1919-21 (6)

  1. War began with Poland hoping to extend its Eastern border and exploit Bolshevik weakness during the civil war in 1919

  2. Poland invaded Galicia, however Red Army pushed back

  3. Russian forces almost reached Warsaw 1920, prompting Allies to discuss intervention

  4. British Foreign Secretary Curzon proposed 'Curzon Line' (demarcation line between Poland and Russia) however Bolsheviks rejected this as they hoped to spread Communism into Poland and Germany by military means

  5. Blockade of Russian ports -> Russia considered peace, however Poland rejected this so war continued

  6. War ended with Treaty of Riga 1921
• Treaty of Riga 1921 (2)

  1. Ended Polish-Soviet war

  2. Restored borders of both countries to status prior to conflict
• Treaty of Rapallo 1922 (3)

  1. Agreement between Germany and Russia

  2. Normal relations established after imbalance of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918

  3. Both states gave up financial claims against each other
• Impact of the Treaty of Rapallo 1922 (3)

  1. Provided Soviets with economic and military advice from Germany

  2. Germany gained investment opportunities in the USSR

  3. Improved Germany's prospects for a more reasonable post-war treaty from the Allies
• Border disputes: Vilna (3)

  1. Vilna (capital of Lithuania) invaded by Poland 1920

  2. Lithuania appealed to League of Nations, but France didn't want to offend Poland (could be an ally against future German aggression) and Britain wouldn't act alone

  3. League never responded -> Poland kept control of Vilna
• Border disputes: Upper Silesia (3)

  1. Upper Silesia (on the border of Germany + Poland) disputed by both states who wanted to benefit from its iron and steel industry

  2. 1920 plebiscite -> revealed desires of voters in the area -> those in industrial areas wanted to be German, those in agricultural areas wanted to be Polish

  3. The League of Nations divided the region according to the results of the plebiscite
• Border disputes: Aaland islands (2)

  1. Coveted by both Sweden and Finland

  2. League of Nations settled this dispute by ruling that the islands should be Finnish, which was accepted by Sweden
• Events of the Corfu Incident 1923 (4)

  1. Greek-Albanian border had yet to be finalised so in 1923 Italian officials went to the area to investigate the claims of the two nations

  2. These Italian officials were murdered following Greek claims that they weren't acting impartially

  3. Mussolini therefore demanded that the Greeks met an ultimatum

  4. Greece rejected the clause insisting on Italian involvement in an inquiry into the murders, so Italy occupied Corfu in response
• Terms of Mussolini's ultimatum to Greece during the Corfu incident 1923 (4)

  1. Greeks had to officially apologise

  2. Murderers had to be executed

  3. Italy had to be paid compensation of 50 million lire

  4. Italian involvement in inquiry into murders
• How was the Corfu incident 1923 solved? (3)

  1. Greece appealed to the League of Nations, who condemned Italy and stated that Greece had to compensate Italy but the money would be held by the League until the murderers were proven to be Greek

  2. Mussolini persuaded Conference of Ambassadors to alter the judgement -> Greece forced to compensate immediately

  3. The Italians withdrew from Corfu once Greece paid compensation
• Why was France reluctant to get involved in the Corfu incident 1923? (1)

  France was concerned that intervention would draw accusations of hypocrisy as France occupied the Ruhr
• Why did France occupy the Ruhr 1923? (1)

  France, who was under pressure to pay war debts, became impatient with German suspension of reparations in 1922 during the German economic crisis
• Consequences of the occupation of the Ruhr 1923 (7)

  1. Industry severely affected as 60,000 French and Belgian troops seized control of factories, mines, and railways

  2. Worsened French-German relations e.g. anti-French riots

  3. German economy severely weakened

  4. Industrial output in the Ruhr, which was responsible for a large proportion of steel and iron output, stopped

  5. Government support of strikers meant they had to provide relief money

  6. To cope with economic problems, the government printed more money, resulting in hyperinflation

  7. Harsh conditions of occupation increased international sympathy for Germany
• What is the Ruhr? (1)

  An industrially rich area on the French-German border
• What actions did Germany take during the occupation of the Ruhr and what did this result in? (1)

  German government ordered Ruhr workers to undertake passive resistance (such as striking and refusing to cooperate with French soldiers) due to limited army -> resulted in 150,000 Ruhr citizens being expelled + 132 being killed
• Impact of Germany's hyperinflation (4)

  1. Value of people's savings dropped

  2. Workers on fixed incomes couldn't afford basic goods = price of bread cost 200 million marks

  3. Severe blow to the reputation of Weimar government

  4. Extremist parties such as the Communist party + the German National People's Party gained popularity
• How did Germany solve hyperinflation?

  Chancellor Stresemann called off passive resistance + stabilised the economy with a new currency (the Retenmark)
• What was Hoover's (Secretary of Commerce) aims regarding the economy?

  Hoped to encourage the development of European countries to increase the ability of debtor nations to repay £3 billion lent by USA during the war
• Agreements signed by Russia following the Polish-Soviet War 1919-1921 (2)

  1. Trade agreement with Britain

  2. Treaty of Rapallo 1922