india

• Charter Act 1813- removed the EIC's monopoly on trade with India. This led to the EIC becoming involved in the administration and tax collection of British territories in India, effectively taking over after the Mughal Empire collapsed.
• Charter Act 1833- ended the EIC's commercial activities, leaving them ruling territories rather than protecting their commercial interests. The private armies of the company meant they were able to collect taxes easily, often making allies with local rulers in exchange for protection.
• The role of the governor- the most important ruled over Fort William in Calcutta and could declare war and peace in India. Governors after 1786 could override their council if they deemed it necessary. Governor's role changed from co-ordinating treaties with locals to controlling laws and admin across the territory.
• The Company Army- there were 3 main armies in India and by 1857, there were 45,000 European soliders compared to the almost 300,000 Indian soldiers. The armies fought a war against Afghanistan that won Britain control over Punjab.
• The importance of Bengal to the EIC- Bengal was the largest presidency army and traditionally recruited higher castes. Many of the seopys in the Bengali army were from the neighbouring province of Awadh.
• The arrival of women- British women saw the Indians as inferior due to their alternate religions. Increasingly, British women had children with Indian men, creating mixed-race children that weren't accepted in either society.
• Sleeman's campaign against thagi- a book by a former thagi revealed the highway robbery and murder at the service of Kali, the goddess. The thagi department was created in 1835 with Sleeman at the top and banned it in 1836. 1000 thagi were transported or hung and 3000 punished altogether.
• Campaign against sati- sati was the self-immolation of Hindu widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands, resulting in 600 deaths a year. Wilberforce campaigned against it and the 1813 charter act allowed missionaries to protest against it and it was banned in 1829.
• Campaign against female infanticide- Bentinck enforced the 1802 laws that banned it as it was common in Northern India. It stemmed from financial struggle in providing a dowry and shame of unmarried daughters. However, Bentinck's success in this has been celebrated in improving women's lives.
• The impact of missionaries- The Charter Act of 1813 removed the ban on missionaries and meant Baptist and Anglicans attempted to educate and remove traditional practices of Indians. They taught the Bible and English in schools, attempting to convert their religion.
• Dalhousie's reforms- contructed railways, the first telegraph line, the Penny Post, using money created through fertile soil in Punjab. He created the Doctrine of Lapse, which stated if a ruler of a princely state died without a true heir or was seen as incompetent, Britian could claim the states.
• Annexation of Awadh (1856)- Under the doctrine of lapse, the leader Ali Shah was accused of maladministration in his extravagance and removed from power. The annexation was resented as it was the recruiting ground of sepoys. Land was also taken from all landowners (talukdars), destroying the previous social order.
• Outbreak in Meerut- A rumour that new gun cartridges would be lubricated with pork and beef fat, undermining the respective religions in India of Islam and Hinduism. This created huge backlash alongside the General Service Enlistment Act that made sepoys march over water despite views that this would pollute their caste status. Due to this 85 sepoys refused to load their new guns and all 3 regiments massacred the Europeans in the region.
• Start of the mutiny- The mutiny spread rapidly through the Bengal army because there was only 1 European regiment between Calcutta and Agra meaning nothing could stop the mutineers. In Awadh, the landlords, Talukdars, also joined in the mutiny over the new social order. Peasant uprisings were common as they hated the changing land structures and excessive tax.
• Delhi- The mutineers forced the last of the Mughal dynasty, Bahadur Shah II to return to his imperial position. He was too old and held little ambition so posed no real threat to the British. The original force from Meerut stagnated in Delhi and the Mughal did not become a nationalist leader.
• Cawnpore- Sir Hugh Wheeler had not been careful in his preparation for the mutiny and only held out for 18 days before surrendering on the 27th June. They were promised safe travels by boat to another city but fighting broke out and 400 were killed. The remaining British, mostly women and children, were taken hostage but all 200 were massacred a day before the relief arrived in July.
• Lucknow- Emerged as a symbol of British resistance as the Governor, Sir Lawrence, had created a fortified residency. They had enough food and ammunition to allow Lucknow to hold out for 5 months when the seige killed Lawrence. Relief of 3000 men reached Lucknow with 6 British battalions and one Sikh battalion 87 days after the seige had begun. In November, the seige was defeated and the city was eventually abadoned and only retaken by the British in March 1858.
• Why Britain retained control (unity)- The rebels weren't a cohesive force as they were made up of sepoys, landowners, peasants and local leaders, each fighting a different injustice. Once the British had regrouped, they just needed to eliminate the centres of resistance in Delhi, Lucknow and Cawnpore.
• Why Britain retained control (armies)- Of the 3 presidency armies, only the one in Awadh revolted. The other 2 armies remained loyal and the area around Calcutta was unaffected by the unrest. The Punjabi sepoys still resented the Begali army so helped to fight them. When Delhi was reclaimed by the British, 82% of soldiers killed were sepoys.
• Results of the Rebellion- Britain sought retribution through terror and massacred entire villages. At Cawnpore, they were forced to lick blood off wall, forced to eat pork or beef and then hanged. In one province, 40 men were strappede to barrels of cannons before being blown up. London also realised the Army was out of date and the presidency armies were to blamed. They needed to change the way they ruled India and put it under Parliamentary control.
• End of Company Rule- The Government of India Act (1858) was passed on 2nd of August and ended EIC rule, placing India under a viceroy. They promised Indians religious toleration, equal protection under law and protected theor rights to land. The princely states fell under indirect control through treaties. 560 autonomous princely states remained loyal to the British Raj until the end of the Empire. Britian also reformed very little as the changes to social order had caused parts of the mutiny.
• End of Company Rule 2- The cost of ending the rebellion was £50 million and the debt was transferred to the new Raj. The taxation system was changed, relying on income tax on wealthier urban groups. The laws on sati and female infanticide remained in place. In 1891, the age of consent for girls into marriage rose from 10 to 12 and missionaries were still sent over. The shock of the events meant that racial prejudice and hatred grew across the empire.
• Changes to the Indian army- The proportion of Indian sepoys was reduced by 40% and the new ratio became 3:1 rather than 9:1. Sepoys were recruited from areas more loyal to the British like the Sikh, Punjab and Muslim regions. Army planning ensured diversity of different regions and religions to prevent the spread of mutiny. Troops used whatever grease they wanted for guns and the breech-loading rifle made grease obselete anyway.
• Longer-term lessons of the rebellion- The modernising agenda of Bentinck had been misjudged and modernisation had stemmed from perceived cultural superiority which criticised Indians. Policy became more pragmatic and cautious and they were less inclined to 'educate' Indians. Alliances with princely states were upheld and infrastructure and railways were developed. By 1861, 1500 miles of track was built and irrigation projects, telegraph and postal system and sanitation all had made progress.