Power

• Proxy War - a war instigated by a major power which does not itself become involved. e.g The Vietnam War
• A semi-democratic state - A state which has democratic features but also has some authoritarian aspects. e.g Russia
• The Hegemonic stability theory states that a benign hegemon will act as global police man thus ensuring and promoting global stability
• According to liberals, governments act in different ways as the nature of government within the state is crucial in how states behave. Governments act in the interest of their nation. Globalisation drives different states preferences and those different state preferences drive what states do.
• Unipolar- a world in which there is only one global hegemon
• Bipolar- a world in which there are two global superpowers
• Realists prefer this due to the concept of the balance of powers
• Soft power- the ability to attract and co-opt and to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction.
• Hard Power- the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political units.
• Failed state-i.e Syria and Libya a state that is unable to operate as a political unit
• Rogue State- a state that has a foreign policy that poses a threat to other states.
• Authoritarian states- North Korea
• Democratic states- i.e France, UK, USA
• Realism- The Balance of Power and hard power- so a Bipolar world is safer than a multipolar world
• An unbalanced multipolar world is the most unstable world.
• Liberalism-Bipolarity breeds tension and puts an emphasis on military power
• Multipolar is better for greater cooperation and interdependence
• Emphasise soft power
• Complex interdependence brings stability.
• Great power

  • Significant military influence, enough military power to provide for their own survival, and possibly influence other states
  • Significant economic power
  • Ability to engage globally, not just regionally, using economic and military strength as well as soft power
  • A foreign policy that can impact global affairs and play a leading role in intergovernmental organisations
• Superpower

  • 1944 W.T.R. Fox ‘a great power with great mobility of power’.
  • able to make its military, economic, diplomatic and cultural appeal felt anywhere in the world. This may be though advanced nuclear and cyber technology, diplomacy and influence over its allies who share its ideological belief
  • pre-eminent military capability including nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them across the planet. 
  • pre-eminent economic and strategic powers within their ideological bloc or region.
• Emerging power

  • A power with an increasingly significant economic influence. 
  • likely to play a growing role in international relations. 
  • Has not met all of the criteria to yet be a great power but will likely have a significant level of regional influence whilst in other areas it may still be developing.
• Unipolar

  One hegemonic state dominates, acting unilaterally
• Bipolar

  Two states equally matched in their power
• Multipolar

  Several states compete with relatively equal influence
• Cold War = stable

  Events:

  • Waltz (neo-realist) argued bipolarity of Cold War established balance of power
  • USA and USSR cancelled each other’s power out
  • MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction
  • 1972 SALT slowed the arms race
  • 1975 Helsinki Accords brought commitments for cooperation between the superpowers
  • Gaddis: ‘The Long Peace’ due to no direct conflict
• Cold War = unstable

  Events: 

  • 1948 Berlin Blockade
  • 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
  • 1983 Able Archer - an annual exercise by NATO military forces in Europe that practiced command and control procedures, with emphasis on the transition from conventional operations to chemical, nuclear, and conventional operations during a time of war. Proxy & peripheral wars: a means to extend global influence!
  • 1950-53 Korean War
  • 1963-75 Vietnam War
  • 1979-89 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
• The Cold War

  • Era of bipolarity
  • 2 superpowers distinct ideologies and regional spheres
  • USA: leader of ‘free world’ (liberal democracy and capitalism)
  • USSR: Leninism-Marxism Communism
  • Each superpower with own military alliances (NATO vs Warsaw Pact)
  • All other states aligned to either to ensure security and survival = client states
  • United Nations largely redundant due to USA/USSR veto on Security Council (UNSC)
• The Cold War: 'The Long Peace?'

  • Waltz (neo-realist) argued bipolarity of Cold War established balance of power
  • USA and USSR cancelled each other’s power out
  • MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction
  • Enabled conflict resolution
  •  1972 SALT slowed the arms race
  •  1975 Helsinki Accords brought commitments for cooperation between the superpowers
  • Gaddis: ‘The Long Peace’ due to no direct conflict
• • Liberals: Cold war = destabilising and dangerous due to the arms race
  • Security dilemma makes war inevitable
  • Long periods of mutual distrust and antagonism
  •  1948 Berlin Blockade
  •  1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
  •  1983 Able Archer
  • Proxy & peripheral wars: a means to extend global influence!
  •  1950-53 Korean War
  •  1963-75 Vietnam War
  •  1979-89 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
• Superpowers have a ‘great mobility of power’ that can be felt anywhere in the world whereas Great Powers have some constraints
• The End of the Cold War

  • ‘we’re an empire, and when we act, we create our own reality’ – aide to Bush administration
  • The fall of communism and  the ‘end of history’
  • Triumph of the Washington Consensus (liberal democracy and capitalism)
  • America as global hegemon = unipolar world system
• Hegemonic Stability Theory

  • If the global hegemon is benign it can serve as global policeman
  • Roman Empire often referred to as Pax Romana (period of peace) due to its awesome and unmatched power
  • See also British Naval dominance prior to 1900s
  • Pax Americana: Post Cold War powers bandwagoned behind the US lead for security
  • Seen as legitimate global leader (militarily and diplomatically)
  • Nobody could challenge US dominance thus deterring aggression
• Hegemonic Stability Theory

  • 1991 First Gulf War – USA’s global prestige enabled it to build global coalition (under UN resolution) after Iraq invaded Kuwait
  • Clinton years saw US lead R2P action in Bosnia (1995 & 99) and Good Friday Agreement
  • Today, US Fifth Fleet patrols Straits of Hormuz, limiting Iran’s ability to shift the BoP in Middle East
  • Triumph of Washington Consensus has increased trade, cooperation and stability
• Hegemonic Stability Theory: Critics

  • What if the global hegemon is malign?
  • Lack of constraints can allow hegemon to become rogue, acting in defiance of international laws
  • Dangers of unaccountable power
  • Invasion of Iraq carried out without UNSC resolution = illegal?
  • ‘we’re an empire, and when we act, we create our own reality’ – aide to Bush administration
  • Paris Agreement, WHO funding
• Hegemonic Stability Theory : Critics

  • Waltz: having a global hegemon can encourage resentment
  • States are security maximisers and will try to break free from constraints of global hegemon
  • Germany’s Weltpolitik and the causes of WW1
  • Particular problem if the global hegemon’s power is waning
  • Transitions in power are inherently unstable!
  • USA post Iraq and 2008 Financial crisis vs Russia’s annexation of Ukraine; China’s increasing influence on South China Sea; Obama’s inability to resolve Syrian Crisis
• Realists on Multipolarity

  • Mearsheimer: multi = most unstable system
  • Constant shifts in BoP creates fear (security dilemma)
  • Increased players only increases conflicts
  • Encourages risk taking (Axis powers and path to WW2)
• Liberals on Multipolarity

  • States more likely to cooperate through IGOs in absence of hegemon
  • States must set aside state egoism
  • Post 1991: UN = more functional which has led to many successful humanitarian interventions and tribunals
• Realists argue that the accumulation of power is the raison d’être of states. This is supported by their Hobbesian view on human nature; realists believe that humans are inherently “nasty and brutish”, and will therefore seek to increase their own power to protect themselves from the violence of others. States are no different and as such, realists advocate for the use of hard power, such as military threats or economic sanctions, as a means to maintain power, especially given the structure of the self-help system that states find themselves in.
• liberals believe hard power can be counterproductive. They point toward other forms of power as a means to benefit the interests of all states. This is supported by their view of human nature, where Mill argues that humans have the fundamental capability to cooperate for mutual benefit. Soft economic power and free trade links creates a mutually beneficial system in which all states can gain more power and influence in the international theatre. This is seen via the Kantian Triangle, where the combination of institutions, democracy and free trade makes the world more stable and peaceful