Cards

• What are the two key variables in experiments?

  Independent variable and dependent variable
• In Milgram's study, what was the independent variable?

  Situational variables
• What is the dependent variable in Milgram's study?

  Percentage of people willing to continue to 450 volts
• What are the four main types of experiments in psychology?

  • Laboratory experiments
  • Field experiments
  • Natural experiments
  • Quasi-experiments
• What are the key considerations when evaluating laboratory experiments?

  • High control aiding replication and reliability
  • Artificial setting
  • Likely demand characteristics affecting internal validity
• What are the key considerations when evaluating natural experiments?

  • IV not controlled by experimenter, reducing bias
  • DV changes likely realistic
  • Lack of control increases confounding variables
• What are the key considerations when evaluating field experiments?

  • More realistic behavior increases ecological validity
  • Participants may be unaware of being studied
  • Less control raises risk of extraneous variables
• What are the key considerations when evaluating quasi-experiments?

  • IV is a naturally occurring difference
  • Participants are aware of being studied
  • Requires identifiable natural differences, may lack realism
• What is the difference between naturalistic and controlled observations?

  Naturalistic is real-world; controlled is lab-based
• What is a participant observation?

  Researcher becomes part of the group
• What is a non-participant observation?

  Researcher observes from outside
• What is the difference between covert and overt observations?

  Covert: participants unaware; overt: aware
• What are self-report techniques?

  Participants answer questions about behavior
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-report interviews and questionnaires?

  Advantages:

  • In-depth data from interviews
  • Quick data collection from questionnaires

  
  

  Disadvantages:

  • Interviews are time-consuming
  • Questionnaires may suffer from bias
• What is a correlation in psychology?

  A relationship between two measured variables
• How do correlations differ from experiments?

  Correlations do not establish causation
• What are the types of correlations?

  • Negative correlation
  • Positive correlation
• How is a negative correlation defined?

  One variable increases, the other decreases
• How is a positive correlation defined?

  Both variables increase together
• How is correlation measured?

  Using a correlation coefficient from -1 to +1
• What is a case study?

  Detailed information about individuals or groups
• What is content analysis?

  Analyzing pre-existing communications for meanings
• What is thematic analysis in content analysis?

  • Identifies key ideas and patterns in qualitative data
  • A 'bottom-up' process leading to themes
  • Themes supported with data from transcripts
• What are the aims of a psychological study?

  General goals of a study
• How do aims differ from hypotheses?

  Aims are general; hypotheses are specific predictions
• What is a null hypothesis?

  It suggests no effect
• What is an alternative hypothesis?

  It predicts a significant outcome
• What are directional and non-directional hypotheses?

  • Directional: specifies expected outcome, used with prior research
  • Non-directional: states a difference without direction, used with conflicting results
• What are extraneous variables?

  Factors other than the IV that influence the DV
• What are demand characteristics?

  Participants aware of researcher's objectives
• How can demand characteristics be reduced?

  Using deception or independent groups design
• What does 'operationalising' variables mean?

  • Defining variables in measurable terms
  • Makes cause-and-effect relationships visible
  • Crucial for clarity and precision in research
• What are confounding variables?

  Unintended influences on research outcomes
• How do confounding variables affect research?

  They can lead to incorrect interpretations of results
• What is the difference between a population and a sample?

  Population is the entire group; sample is a subset
• What is random sampling?

  Every member has an equal chance of selection
• What is opportunity sampling?

  Selecting whoever is available at the location
• What is systematic sampling?

  Selecting individuals according to a predetermined system
• What is stratified sampling?

  Dividing population into strata and selecting from each
• What is volunteer sampling?

  Individuals choose to respond to a request for participants