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• All life consists of cells which can be seen with a normal light microscope and the nucleus but the subcellular structures may not be visible using an electron microscope.
• Electron microscopes have a better resolving power and a higher resolution than light microscopes, allowing us to see finer details of the organelles.
• The size of a cell can be calculated by knowing the magnification of the microscope, which is equal to image size divided by object size.
• The actual cell size can be measured by dividing the image size by the magnification.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus in which their DNA is found, while prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and their DNA is found in a ring called a plasmid.
• Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contain similar organelles or subcellular structures such as the cell membrane, which keeps everything inside the cell but is also semi-permeable, allowing certain substances to pass through.
• Most bacteria have an extra cell wall made of cellulose providing a rigid structure for them.
• Cytoplasm is the liquid that makes up the cell in which most chemical reactions take place.
• Mitochondria is where respiration takes place, releasing energy for the cell to function.
• Ribosomes are where proteins are assembled or synthesized.
• Plant cells contain chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll and photosynthesis takes place.
• Plant cells also contain a permanent vacuole in which sap is stored.
• The independent variable in photosynthesis can be the light intensity, which is changed by varying the distance from the light source, such as a lamp.
• Plants and yeast cells respire anaerobically, but slightly different, where glucose is turned into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• During exercise, the breathing rate and heart rate increase to increase the rate of oxygen delivered to cells for respiration.
• Anaerobic respiration occurs when there's a lack of oxygen, and glucose is instead converted straight into lactic acid, which releases less energy.
• Light intensity follows an inverse square relationship, meaning if you double the distance from the light source, the intensity quarters.
• Every cell, including red blood cells, has a mitochondria which is where respiration takes place to provide energy for other chemical reactions, movement, and warmth.
• This process is what you feel when your muscles ache during intense exercise.
• Aerobic respiration means with oxygen, represented by the word and balanced chemical equation.
• The oxygen debt built up during exercise means more oxygen is needed afterward to break it down in the liver.
• The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by submerging pond weeds in an inverted measuring cylinder and measuring the volume of oxygen made over time.
• Metabolism is defined as the sum of all reactions in a cell or organism, including respiration, conversion of glucose and starch, glycogen and cellulose, glucose build into cellulose which is used to make cell walls, glucose and nitrates used to make amino acids for protein synthesis, fatty acids and glycerol built up into lipids, and the breakdown of excess proteins turned into urea.
• Bacteria multiply by binary fission, so the number doubles every 10 minutes, meaning that if we started with one bacterium after an hour, we'd have 2 to the power of 6 that's 64.
• If pathogens are unknown to the immune system, lymphocytes will start making all different shapes until one fits.
• Photosynthesis happens in chlorophyll and chloroplasts in plant cells to provide food for the plant.
• Increase in light intensity or increasing CO2 concentration can be a limiting factor in the rate of photosynthesis.
• Phagocytes ingest and destroy pathogens.
• Tobacco mosaic virus affects plants by discoloring leaves due to inhibiting chlorophyll production, causing stunted growth.
• Penicillin was the first antibiotic, and there are good bacteria in our body, so antibiotics are designed to be as specific as possible to avoid damaging these.
• The rate of photosynthesis is increased with higher temperature unless it's so high that enzyme denaturing occurs.
• Rose black spot and purple black spots appear on the leaves of plants due to fungal infections, causing stunted growth.
• The immune system stores a copy of this antibody next to a copy of the antigen, so it's ready to stop the pathogen from causing an infection next time it's exposed to it.
• An antigen on a pathogen will have a specific shape, so only an antibody that fits it will neutralize it.
• White blood cells, particularly lymphocytes, produce antitoxins to neutralize the poisons pathogens produce and also make antibodies which stick to the antigen on a pathogen, stopping them from infecting more cells and clumping together.
• Malaria is spread by mosquitoes, making them the vector for the disease.
• Malaria is caused by a protist that burrows into red blood cells to multiply then burst out, destroying the red blood cell in the process.
• Drugs are extracted from plants and other organisms, for example, aspirin comes from willow trees and penicillin from a mold.
• Monoclonal antibodies are made from clones of a cell which is able to produce a specific antibody to combat a disease.
• A vaccine is a dead or inert version of a pathogen used to expose the immune system to the pathogen without it infecting the body.