GENERAL BIOLOGY

• MONOMER - It is a single unit of an organic molecule that when

  linked with other monomers can produce a polymer.
• POLYMER- Long chains; giant organic molecules are assembled from many smaller molecules called monomers.
• DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

  • It refers to a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, with the loss of a water molecule.
  • This is how polymers are formed.
  • Simple to Complex
• HYDROLYSIS

  • It is a chemical reaction in which a large molecule is broken down into smaller molecules by the addition of water.
  • Complex to Simple
• NUCLEIC ACIDS

  • Store genetic information and enable protein production.
  • Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA
  • The monomer or building block is nucleotide.
  • Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
• COMPONENTS OF NUCLEOTIDES

  1. Phosphate Group
  2. Nitrogenous Bases
  3. Sugar
• Nucleotides are linked through the 2 specialized bonds namely:

  the phosphodiester bond and hydrogen bond.
• PHOSPHODIESTER BOND - Chemical bond that forms when exactly two hydroxyl groups in phosphoric acid react with a hydroxyl group on other molecules forming ester bonds.
• Types of Nucleic Acid

  • RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
• DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

  • This is the chromosomal material containing the genetic information of all living cells.
  • Commonly exists as a double stranded molecule with a twisted helix shape.
  • It is composed of a phosphate- deoxyribose sugar backbone, and the four nitrogenous bases
  • It remains in the nucleus and carries genetic materials
• RIBONUCLEIC ACID

  • Essential for the protein synthesis
  • Single-stranded nucleic acid
  • Made up of ribonucleotide linked by phosphodiester bond.
  • It is composed of phosphate-ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases.
  • Leaves the nucleus and involved in protein synthesis
• MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)

  • RNA copies of the DNA message produced during DNA Transcription.
  • mRNA is translated to form proteins.
• RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) - It is the RNA component of ribosomes, the

  molecular machines that catalyze protein synthesis.
• TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) - It carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis (ribosome) and matches it to the mRNA.
• Amino acid is the building block or monomer of protein.
• Amino acid has two types: the essential and non-essential amino acids.
• Amino Acid is composed of C, H, O and N. Sometimes with S.
• Protein is derived from the amine group and carboxylic acid group.
• Amine Group - An organic functional group that has a basic nitrogen

  with a lone pair on it.
• Carboxylic Group - A combination of two functional groups attached to a single carbon atom, namely, hydroxyl (single-bonded OH) and carbonyl (double bonded O) groups.
• Essential Amino Acids - are not synthesized by mammals and are therefore dietarily essential or indispensable nutrients.
• Non- Essential Amino Acids - means that our bodies can produce the amino acid, even if we do not get it from the food we eat.
• AMINO ACIDS - Proteins are formed by linking amino acids through dehydration synthesis.
• Amino acids are linked together using peptide bond forming a long chain called polypeptide.
• THE CENTRAL DOGMA = DNA -> RNA -> Protein
• STEPS IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:

  TRANSCRIPTION - the process by which the DNA are transcribed to produce mRNA (messenger RNA)

  TRANSLATION - The process by which the mRNA are decoded and used to create proteins. This is to break the sequence into triplets`(Codons)
• PROTEIN STRUCTURE:

  PRIMARY STRUCTURE - Sequence of the amino acids

  SECONDARY STRUCTURE - Hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone that

  causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern

  TERTIARY STRUCTURE - Three-dimension (3D) folding pattern of a

  protein due to side chain interactions.

  QUARTERNARY STRUCTURE - Formation of protein consisting of more than

  one (1) amino acid chain.
• CARBOHYDRATES

  • It consists of carbon hydrogen, and oxygen
  • The empirical formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n
  • The building block is called monosaccharide
  • Main source of energy in the diet
• MONOSACCHARIDES

  • Mono means “one”
  • Sacchar means “sweet or sugar”.
  • It is known as the simplest form of carbohydrates.
  • Monosaccharide ends with the suffix - ose
  • It can be classified based on number of carbon it contains.
• MONOSACHHARIDE FUNCTIONAL GROUP:

  ALDOSE - sugar containing aldehyde group

  KETOSE - sugar containing carbonyl group
• THREE IMPORTANT MONOSACHARRIDE:

  GLUCOSE

  • It is the main source of chemical energy in all organisms.
  • Most important monosaccharide.

  FRUCTOSE

  • The main sugar in fruit and honey.
  • Known as the sweetest sugar.

  GALACTOSE - Found in milk as a part of the sugar lactose.
• DISACCHARIDE

  • Form when 2 monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis.
  • Disaccharides can be broken down into two monosaccharides through hydrolysis.
  • Covalent bond forming glycosidic linkages.
• OLIGOSACCHARIDES - Combination of 3-10 monosaccharide

  Disaccharide is one of the important components of this.

  Examples:

  Raffinose = Galactose + Glucose + Fructose

  Stachyose = Galactose + Galactose + Glucose + Fructose
• POLYSACCHARIDE - Are complex sugars made up of chains and/or branches of monosaccharides bonded by glycosidic linkages.
• TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES:

  Storage Polysaccharides

  -starch

  -glycogen

  Structural Polysaccharides

  -Cellulose

  -Chitin
• LIPIDS

  • No definite ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
  • The building blocks are glycerol and fatty acids.
  • Hydrophobic and non-polar
  • Storage of energy
  • Provide insulation.
  • Composition of the membrane
  • Form water-repellent layers on leaves.
  • Provide building blocks for hormones like testosterone.
• CLASSIFICATIONS OF LIPIDS

  • FATS AND OILS
  • PHOSPHOLIPIDS
  • STEROIDS
  • WAXES
• FATS AND OILS

  • Composed of glycerol backbone and three fatty acid tails.
  • Fats are also called triglycerides
  • Glycerol is a small organic molecule with three hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
  • Fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon chain attached to a carboxyl group (-COOH).
  • Typically, fatty acid contains 12-18 carbons. But some may have as few as 4 or as many as 36.
• TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS:

  SATURATED

  • Characterized by a single bond
  • Characteristics of animal fats
  • Cause of cardiovascular diseases

  MONOSATURATED

  • Characterized by a single double bond
  • Characteristics of vegetable fats
  • Less hazardous than saturated

  POLYUNSATURATED

  • Characterized by 2 or more double bonds
  • Characteristics of vegetable fats
  • Less hazardous than saturated
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS - Hydrophilic Head & Hydrophobic Tail