power and development

• Soft power includes a state's diplomatic and cultural power, is associated with liberalism, and can involve persuasion and attraction. Hard power includes a state's military and economic power, is associated with realism, and can involve threats and coercion (but not always threatening something bad - sometimes promising something good, i.e. military help against a common enemy). Smart power (term coined by Joseph Nye) refers to states using both hard and soft power methods to achieve its aims.
• Economic power:

  Often measured in GDP or GDP per capita, but may also include factors such as debt, trade balances, international aid, etc.

  Military power:

  Not only the size of a nation's army but also its global reach, or ability to deploy anywhere at any time. This includes naval strength, air force capacity and technological capabilities including weapons, drones, or, increasingly, cyber technology.
• Cultural power:

  This represents a state's global cultural outreach, for example through film, television, clothing, food, etc. Some argue that the world is becoming increasingly culturally homogenised.

  Diplomatic power:

  This includes elements of structural power, the reach of foreign policy and the global impression a state makes as well as its ability to utilise its influence.
• Structural power:

  This represents a state's capacity to influence intergovernmental organisations such as the UN, IMF, World Bank and G7 and G20

  Regional power:

  Some states have significant influence in their respective regions and may pool sovereignty to enhance that influence, giving them greater structural and diplomatic power to put pressure on IGOs and NGOs.
• Prior to WW1 there were several great powers - states that wield significant global influence, militarily and economically and through their leading role in IGOs - including France and Great Britain. The emergence of new powers, such as Italy, Japan and the Soviet Union, during the interwar period meant that global power was now shared more equally. Great powers generally possess prestige and influence in global relations but lack the mobility of power that would make them superpowers.
• The balance of power shifted during the Cold War era, when the Soviet Union and US became 2 clear superpowers engaged in a superpower rivalry based on ideology. Superpowers are states which possess the characteristics of great powers but can make their influence felt globally using advanced cyber and nuclear technology with the ability to deliver a devastating military response anytime, anywhere.
• When communism collapsed in Eastern Europe, the US remained as the sole superpower and possessed global hegemonic status. Since the Iraq war and 2008 financial crisis, however, emerging powers such as China, Russia and India pose a challenge to US hegemony. Emerging powers are defined as states that have started to acquire great power status but are not yet fully a great power, acquiring power rapidly in some areas (e.g. natural resources) but not all.
• Unipolarity refers to the dominance of one single power in international relations, having so much economic, military and diplomatic power that it achieves hegemonic status. The US achieved this status in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
• Hegemonic Stability Theory


  A hegemon that is perceived as benign by most other global players can act as a global police, therefore encouraging global stability. The Roman Empire used this to provide stability in the ancient world during a period known as the 'Pax Romana'. After the Cold War, a similar 'Pax Americana' was achieved with other powers 'bandwagoning' behind the US to secure their protection, furthering American ideals of free-market liberal democracy as tell as the US's economic, political and cultural identity.
• Criticisms of hegemony

  Some see a unipolar world as unstable, with the hegemonic status of one state encouraging dangerous resentment among emerging powers. Realist Kenneth Walz argues that security-maximising states will feel constrained by other states' claims to global hegemony, making international relations extremely volatile. Noam Chomsky argued the danger of a hegemon becoming malign and acting against international interest. When the US invaded Iraq in 2003 without a UN mandate, it demonstrated the danger of one power being able to ignore the wishes of IGOs and other states.
• Criticisms of unipolarity

  Hegemony can be dangerous when a hegemon's power declines. It has been argued that this provoked the first world war, with Germany trying to challenge what had been the hegemonic statues of Great Britain. US failure to achieve its objectives in either Iraq or Afghanistan, as well as the 2008 financial crisis, has recently highlighted US military and economic weakness and undermined its claims to global leadership.
• Bipolarity refers to a global distribution of power in which two competing superpowers are relatively equally matched in terms of global influence, and their rivalry dominates international relations. The Cold War is an example of a bipolar system, where the US and Soviet Union were the two major superpowers. The UN became largely redundant during this period due to the US and USSR vetoing each other as UNSC permanent members.
• Liberal view of bipolarity

  Bipolarity is destabilising and dangerous, as both sides will continually advance their military, diplomatic and economic resources at the expense of, and in defence against, the other, creating suspicious and hostility and preventing the conditions for a lasting peace from occurring. Liberals define the Cold War by its mutual distrust, citing the fear in the US which led to the Cuban missile crisis and threat of nuclear war. Liberals argue that, without bipolar tensions, powers can come together and resolve issues in a stable, multipolar world.
• Realist view of bipolarity

  The Cold War promoted peace since the existence of two evenly matched powers meant neither side could eliminate the other, creating a balance in which it was in the best interest of both sides to maintain equality - if one side risked war, there would be catastrophic consequences for both (see: Mutually Assured Destruction). Realists see the lack of global leadership resulting from the US's loss of power as making it more difficult to work collectively.
• Stability of the Cold War system

  Realists believe this period was stable, seeing the balance of power between superpowers as having created a stable equilibrium where neither could attack the other directly. John Gaddis argued that, despite lesser conflicts, there was no direct conflict between the two main powers and conflicts between other powers were less likely because all states revolved around the two ideologies (capitalism and communism). The principle of MAD prevented either power from launching an attack on the other.
• Instability of the Cold War system

  Liberals believe this period was unstable, seeing the Cold War as a dangerous and turbulent time. Although avoiding direct conflict, both sides tried to expand their power through global proxy wars (e.g. the Vietnam war, where the US backed South Vietnam and the USSR backed North Vietnam). MAD was unstable, nearly ending in nuclear war during the Cuban missile crisis, and the UN was ineffective, so there were no checks and balances on either superpower.
• There has arguably been a shift towards regionalism in recent years, with states finding it more important to be a leader in their region than to vie for global power. This leads to new power struggles of regional bipolarity: notable examples include bipolarity between Pakistan and India, and Iran and Saudi Arabia.
• Regional Bipolarity: Pakistan and India

  Since the 1947 partition, India and Pakistan have had a tumultuous relationship which has led millions to be displaced along religious grounds. One notable area of tension has been the territorial conflict over Kashmir, which has been ongoing since the partition and has led to several ceasefires and ceasefire lines. One of these, the line of control, was described by Bill Clinton as one of the most dangerous places in the world. Terrorist attacks in the 00's increased tensions, but these have lessened recently.
• Regional Bipolarity: Iran and Saudi Arabia

  Both Russia and the US remain involved with geopolitics in the Middle East. The Arab Spring in the early 2010s lead to widespread protests against oppressive regimes, destabilising the region, especially in Egypt and Syria, leaving Iran and Saudi Arabia as the two major regional powers. They have fought a number of proxy wars in Iraq, Syria and Yemen in a struggle for regional power.
• Democratic states (e.g. UK)

  Characterised by free, fair and regular elections where governments are held accountable for their actions. Liberal rights and freedoms are valued, with an emphasis on the empowerment of the individual. legitimacy is derived from the popular consent of the public. Semi-democratic states, such as South Africa, superficially possess the features of a democracy but have underlying authoritarian features which ensure the government won't willingly relinquish power.
• Authoritarian states (e.g. North Korea, Russia)


  A state in which power is concentrated solely in the hands of a single, usually unelected person or party. Power is hereditary and sometimes seized, and is unlimited due to lack of accountability. Non-democratic states vary in the despotic tendencies of their governments, with totalitarian governments the most ruthless in their suppression of internal dissent.
• Failed states (e.g. Democratic Republic of Congo)


  The DRC is characterised by civil war, which ended President Mobutu Sese Seko's dictatorship in 1996. There are significant ethnic and provincial divides, exacerbated by Belgian colonial rule, and a tumultuous relationship with some of its neighbours.
• Rogue states (e.g. North Korea)


  The DPRK, or North Korea, has a significant nuclear arsenal which poses a threat to other nation-states. It has been in conflict with South Korea throughout history, perpetuated by the peripheral war during the Cold War where North Korea was backed by the USSR. North Korea does not participate in the international system and frequently flouts international laws, with one of the worst human rights records.
• Democracy effectively promotes peace & stability

  It empowers the populace, developing political stability since people are less likely to be unhappy and rebel. Fukuyama argued that liberal democracy brings us to the 'end of history' as the ideal form of government. Democracy complements capitalism and free trade, meaning it contributes to economic development, enabling stable sustainable development. Democratic peace theory states that democracies are more amenable to multilateral engagement and less prepared to take destabilising action to achieve more power.
• Democracy doesn't promote peace & stability

  Democracy shouldn't be seen as 'one size fits all' - a benign dictator could benefit a new or underdeveloped country suffering from instability and volatility. Implemented without a strong economy, democracy is unsustainable. Many developing countries benefit from protectionist policies, which require state control, as they stabilise economic growth to create political stability.
• Western liberals assume that democracies form the best form of government, but some authoritarian countries have achieved impressive growth: China is set to overtake the US as the world's biggest economy by 2028.
• Multipolarity is a system of global power in which there are a number of relatively evenly matched powers. The changing balance of economic, military, political and cultural power has led some to believe that the world is becoming increasingly multipolar, with the US losing its hegemonic status.
• Is the US still a hegemon?: Hard power

  The US remains the largest economy in the world, with the dollar the main form of international currency. It has huge structural power in the WTO and IMF, and the world's largest military budget with bases in over 70 countries. However, China is expected to become the largest economy eventually, and the US owes over $1 trillion in debt to China. The AIIB, where China holds huge structural power, rivals the IMF, and Russian and Chinese military forces are matching the reach of the US military.
• Is the US still a hegemon?: Soft power

  The US is world-renowned in television and film, and has been globally leading brands. The dominance of American culture has caused 'globalisation' to become synonymous with 'Americanisation'. The US possesses significant structural power in IGOs such as the World Bank, G7 and UNSC. However, Bollywood is in direct competition with Hollywood, and controversies such as the Iraq War and Guantanamo Bay have damaged the US' reputation. China and Russia are also UNSC members, and Trump's 'American First' rhetoric has alienated other countries.
• The 2015 Paris climate change conference demonstrated that the developing world is becoming more concerned about the dangers of unrestricted economic growth, and attitudes towards climate change continued to flip, with the US withdrawing under Trump while China reversed plans to build new coal plants and President Xi Jinping expressed regret over Trump's withdrawal. This is indicative of China's developing soft and diplomatic power as global attitudes towards the US grow increasingly sour - a West-East power transfer.