Atavistic form

• The atavistic form is an early biological explanation of criminal behaviour proposed by Cesare Lombroso (1876). He suggested that criminals were "genetic throwbacks" — primitive, evolutionary "subspecies" who were biologically different from non-criminals.

  • Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics.
• This biological explanation suggests that criminals have biological characteristics that make them less evolved (atavistic characteristics).

  • These characteristics include asymmetrical faces, a strong jaw, high cheekbones, dark skin, and extra toes, nipples, or fingers.
• Lombroso argued that different types of criminals had different atavistic features:

  • Murderers: Bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears.
  • Fraudsters: Thin lips.
  • Sex offenders: Glinting eyes, fleshy lips, projecting ears.
• Lombroso examined the facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts, both living and dead, and proposed that atavistic form was associated with certain unusual physical traits, which he called atavistic characteristics, were linked to criminal behaviour.

  • He looked at the skulls of 383 dead criminals and 3,839 living criminals and found that 40% of criminals had atavistic characteristics.
• A strength of Lombroso’s theory is that it was one of the first scientific attempts to explain criminal behaviour. His work shifted criminology away from a moralistic view (that criminals were simply "evil") to a biological perspective. This helped shape the field of forensic psychology, making it more scientific. Lombroso is often called the "father of modern criminology" because his research laid the foundation for later biological and psychological explanations of crime.
• A major limitation of the atavistic form is that it lacks scientific credibility. Lombroso did not use a control group, meaning he did not compare the criminal sample to a group of non-criminals. When Goring (1913) compared 3,000 criminals and 3,000 non-criminals, he found no significant differences in facial features, suggesting that Lombroso’s claims were unreliable. This means the theory is based on flawed methodology and lacks empirical support.
• A further issue is that Lombroso’s theory has racist and socially sensitive implications. Many atavistic traits (e.g., dark skin, curly hair) are features associated with people of African descent, reinforcing negative racial stereotypes. This has been widely criticised as scientific racism and raises ethical concerns about the misuse of scientific research. Therefore, while Lombroso’s theory was influential, it is now considered highly outdated and socially problematic.
• A limitation is that it does not establish causation between atavistic features and criminal behaviour. Just because criminals share certain physical characteristics, it does not mean these features cause crime. Other factors (e.g. poverty) could contribute to both unusual physical features and criminal behaviour. For example, someone who has suffered malnutrition may develop facial asymmetries and turn to crime due to poverty. This means that Lombroso’s theory is reductionist as it ignores the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and environmental factors in criminal behaviour.