Issues and debates

• What is universality in psychology?

  Theory applicable to everyone despite differences
• How does bias affect psychological research?

  It influences research, hindering universality
• What threatens universality in research?

  Gender biases undermine the concept
• What is alpha bias?

  Exaggerated differences between genders
• What does alpha bias suggest about gender differences?

  One gender is seen as inferior to another
• What is beta bias?

  Research on one gender applied to another
• What is a common issue with beta bias?

  Females are often excluded from research
• What is androcentrism in research?

  Research on one gender applied to another
• What can result from androcentrism?

  Female behavior may be misunderstood
• What are the implications of gender bias in research?

  • Creates misleading assumptions about women
  • Makes it harder for women to challenge stereotypes
  • Provides justification for discrimination
  • Can lead to unequal pay and opportunities
• How has gender bias influenced feminist psychology?

  It shows women are different, not inferior
• Who developed a theory of moral development criticized for gender bias?

  Kohlberg
• What did Gilligan's research conclude about moralities?

  Males are justice-oriented, females care-oriented
• What criteria did Worrell suggest to reduce gender bias?

  • Study women in meaningful contexts
  • Ensure genuine participation in research
  • Focus on diversity within women
  • Use qualitative data alongside quantitative methods
• What did Rosenthal's research reveal about gender bias in methods?

  Male experimenters treated females more favorably
• What is ethnocentrism in psychology?

  Belief in superiority of one cultural group
• What causes ethnocentrism?

  Imposed etic and external study of cultures
• What is cultural relativism?

  Respecting and studying all cultures in depth
• What are the consequences of culture bias in research?

  • Damaging effects on minority groups
  • Scientific justification for discrimination
  • Misleading conclusions about intelligence
  • Need for sensitivity in research
• How has the individualism and collectivism debate changed?

  It is less relevant due to global interconnectedness
• What is free will in psychology?

  Humans can choose their thoughts and actions
• What does hard determinism imply?

  All behavior has a cause that can be identified
• What is soft determinism?

  Some actions are predetermined, but free will exists
• What is biological determinism?

  Behavior determined by biological makeup
• What does environmental determinism suggest?

  Behavior results from conditioning and reinforcement
• What is psychic determinism?

  Behavior is determined by unconscious conflicts
• What are the strengths of determinism in psychology?

  • Aligns psychology with scientific principles
  • Helps predict and control behavior
  • Aids in developing effective treatments
  • Provides causal explanations for behavior
• What is a potential criticism of hard determinism?

  It may overlook individual choice and agency
• What can repressed childhood memories cause?

  Conflicts in the unconscious mind
• How can depression be caused according to the study material?

  By a traumatic event such as death
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of determinism?

  Strengths:

  • Consistent with scientific aims
  • Predicts and controls behavior
  • Leads to effective treatments (e.g., SSRIs)

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Hard determinism is unfalsifiable
  • Claims cannot always be tested empirically
• What is a strength of determinism in psychology?

  It places psychology on equal footing with sciences
• How does determinism enhance our understanding of behavior?

  By identifying cause and effect relationships
• What treatment can be developed from understanding neurotransmitter imbalances?

  SSRIs to correct serotonin levels
• Why might hard determinism be considered unscientific?

  It is based on unfalsifiable claims
• What does psychic determinism claim about mental illnesses?

  They are caused by unconscious urges
• Who argued that unfalsifiable theories cannot be consistent with science?

  Karl Popper
• What benefits does believing in free will provide for mental health?

  It can improve mental health outcomes
• What did Roberts et al. find about adolescents and fatalism?

  They are at greater risk of depression
• How does the belief in free will influence treatment approaches?

  It leads to therapies like CBT