Bio

• Plants were proposed to have evolved from a single green algal ancestor.
• Alternation of Generations is the life cycle of plants.
• Non-vascular plants lack lignified conducting tissues, obtain water and nutrients from the environment through direct absorption, and reproduce by spore formation.
• Vascular Plants possess lignified conducting tissues, have two subgroups, Pteridophytes reproduce through spores, and Spermatophytes reproduce through seeds.
• Alternation of Generations is metagenesis, a common life cycle of land plants, with two distinct stages: the Sporophyte consists of diploid cells, produces spores via meiosis, and the Gametophyte consists of haploid cells, produces gametes via mitosis.
• Angiosperms, or flower bearing plants, have a life cycle that starts with the seed that contains the embryo, goes through germination, and ends with the production of new seeds.
• Gymnosperms, such as Pine trees, do not bear flowers, contain seeds in structures called cones, have separate male and female cones, and their life cycle involves male gametophytes in male cones and female cones containing ovules which turn into seeds after pollination occurs.
• Lower plants, such as Bryophytes and ferns, directly release their haploid spores into their surroundings to develop into a gametophyte.
• Ferns have a life cycle where a mature sporophyte has a leaf-like structure called fronds that contain sporangium, the sporangia produce haploid spores through meiotic division, which then develop into heart-shaped gametophytes, these gametophytes are capable of producing egg and sperm cells and simple fertilization takes place, which does not need pollination, the resulting diploid zygote then develops into a young sporophyte as it lands into a substrate.
• Asexual Reproduction occurs when the offspring emerge from a single parent, the offspring is genetically identical to the parent plant.
• Exhalation, also called expiration, is the process of moving air out of the lungs.
• During Inhalation, the incoming air consists of oxygen molecules along with other gases, while the incoming blood into the pulmonary capillaries is deoxygenated, which implies that the oxygen molecules from the air will rapidly diffuse into the pulmonary capillary blood for transport.
• Pulmonary Gas Exchange refers to the movement of gas molecules that happens in the alveolar sacs, specifically, Diffusion facilitates the movement of gases between each alveolus and blood capillaries, the passive movement of molecules from high concentration to lower concentration.
• During Exhalation, CO2 molecules move in the opposite direction, the incoming blood has greater concentration of CO2 than the gases in the alveolus which implies that the CO2 molecules will rapidly diffuse from the capillaries into the alveoli and out of the lungs during exhalations.
• Diffusion of gases in the lungs is possible due to the difference in the concentration or partial pressures of oxygen or CO2 between the alveoli and the blood within capillaries.
• Metabolism is a collection of all life-sustaining biochemical processes.
• Inhalation, also called inspiration, is a phase when air moves into the lungs, as an individual breathes in the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles contract which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and the lungs.
• Breathing refers to the movement of air between the lungs and the environment, it is possible due to the interaction of the different organs of the respiratory tract.
• Diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle where the base of the paired lungs rests onto, it actively contracts and relaxes as we breathe which forces air in and out of the respiratory tract.
• Apomixis is an asexual reproduction in plants where seeds are produced without meiosis and fertilization, the unfertilized eggs in ovules produce embryos.
• Vascular tissues consist of xylem and phloem which are needed for the transportation of nutrients and water in plants, distributed all through the plant organs for transporting essential nutrients.
• Xylem is responsible for transporting of minerals and water from roots to other parts of plants, in a one-way transport system.
• Capillary action is the ability of water to flow through narrow spaces in the xylem and phloem, possible due to water loss via transpiration in the stems/leaves, thus requiring absorption of water and nutrients from the soil through roots.
• Vascular plants have vascular tissues, while nonvascular plants are simple plants without vascular tissues.
• Endoderm, the inner layer, is responsible for lung cells, thyroid cells, digestive cells.
• Neural tube is the embryonic precursor of the central nervous system, giving rise to the brain and spinal cord.
• Most of the tissues and organs of the developing organism will be derived from the three layers during gastrulation.
• Macronutrients are materials needed by plants in larger amounts, including carbon, nitrogen, potassium, hydrogen and oxygen, and phosphorus.
• Ectoderm, the outer layer, is responsible for skin cells, neurons, pigment cells.
• Notochord is a rod of cartilage that serves as the primary skeletal element in the embryo and forms the vertebral column of vertebrate species, mesodermal layer.
• Mesoderm, the middle layer, is responsible for cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, tubule cells, red blood cells, smooth muscle.
• Micronutrients are materials needed by plants in small amounts, including boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.
• Phloem is the primary vascular tissue for transporting nutrients and food from the roots to other growing parts of plants, with two-way movement.
• Vegetative Propagation is a form of asexual reproduction where plant parts produce buds that develop into new individuals, allowing fragmentation of plants followed by regeneration which allows the development of new plants.
• Fragmentation is a process where a parent needs to break its body part into fragments to allow regeneration and regrowth of lost parts.
• Incomplete metamorphosis includes Hemimetabolous development, which occurs when the juvenile stage thrives in an aquatic environment, and Paurometabolous metamorphosis, which occurs when the juvenile stage thrives in a terrestrial environment.
• Budding is a process where a bud or outgrowth forms in the body of the parent and develops into a new individual, buds usually break off from the parent’s body once functional organs are already present.
• Fission or Binary Fission is a process where new individuals are formed through the splitting of the parent into approximately equal halves.
• External fertilization refers to the process where the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract, common among aquatic animals.
• The animal eventually becomes an adult individual, reaches sexual maturity and reproduces before they die.