Immune System

• How do you prepare a 0.75 M solution from a 5 M solution of HCl?

  Use dilution formula: C1V1 = C2V2
• What is the role of antigens in the immune response?

  • Antigens are molecules that generate an immune response.
  • Found on the surface of cells.
  • Foreign antigens trigger immune responses.
• What are pathogens?

  Organisms that cause disease, like bacteria.
• Why does the immune system respond to foreign antigens?

  They are identified as foreign by immune cells.
• What triggers an immune response in cancerous cells?

  Abnormal antigens on their surface.
• How does the immune system respond to toxins?

  It can respond to toxins produced by pathogens.
• What happens during an organ transplant regarding antigens?

  Foreign antigens trigger an immune response.
• What are the ABO blood groups?

  A, B, AB, and O blood types.
• What antigens does type A blood have?

  A antigens on its red blood cells.
• What is the role of phagocytes in the immune response?

  They engulf and destroy pathogens.
• How do phagocytes recognize pathogens?

  By foreign antigens on the pathogen's surface.
• What is the function of T-cells in the immune response?


  They bind to antigens and activate immune responses.
• What do helper T-cells do?

  Release signals to activate other immune cells.
• What is the role of B-cells in the immune response?

  They produce antibodies against specific antigens.
• What is clonal selection in B-cells?

  Activation and division of specific B-cells.
• What are monoclonal antibodies?

  Antibodies produced by cloned plasma cells.
• How do antibodies lead to pathogen destruction?

  By agglutinating pathogens for phagocytosis.
• What are the two types of immune responses?

  • Cellular response: Involves T-cells and phagocytes.
  • Humoral response: Involves B-cells and antibodies.
• What happens during the primary immune response?


  It is slow due to few B-cells available.
• What do memory cells do after the primary response?

  They remain for quick response to future infections.
• How does the secondary immune response differ from the primary response?


  It is quicker and stronger due to memory cells.
• What is active immunity?


  Immunity from antibodies produced by the body.
• What is passive immunity?

  Immunity from antibodies made by another organism.
• What is the difference between natural and artificial active immunity?

  Natural is from disease; artificial is from vaccines.
• What is herd immunity?

  Protection of unvaccinated individuals through vaccination.
• What are the disadvantages of oral vaccines?

  They may be broken down by gut enzymes.
• What are attenuated viruses?

  Viruses modified to prevent disease production.
• What ethical issues surround vaccine testing?

  • Vaccines are tested on animals first.
  • Some people oppose animal testing.
• What do vaccines cause the body to produce against pathogens?

  Memory cells
• What is the benefit of vaccines in terms of disease occurrence?

  They reduce disease occurrence for everyone
• What is the term for immunity provided to unvaccinated individuals?

  Herd immunity
• What do vaccines always contain?

  Antigens
• How can vaccines be administered?

  Injected or taken orally
• What is a disadvantage of oral vaccines?

  They may be broken down by gut enzymes
• Why are booster vaccines given?

  To ensure more memory cells are produced
• What modification is done to attenuated viruses in vaccines?

  They are genetically or chemically modified
• What ethical issue is associated with vaccine testing?

  Testing on animals before humans
• What risk do volunteers face when testing vaccines on humans?

  Contracting the disease they are vaccinated against
• Why might some people refuse vaccines?

  Due to the risk of side effects
• What happens during an epidemic regarding vaccine distribution?

  Decisions must be made on who receives it first