unit one

• China at the end of the Civil War (political)-at first, the CCP lacked support as they seized power undemocratically. They had some support from peasants due to the promise of land reform by were less popular in cities like Shanghai. The peasants also had little understanding of Mao's communist ideas.
• China at the end of the Civil War (admin chaos)- nationalists had fled and stripped China of assets like gold and silver. The educated elite left with the nationalists leaving few officials to run cities or rebuild the economy. The communists had no administrative experience and hadn't prepared to run the country.
• China at the end of the Civil War (lawlessness)- law and order broke down leaving 1 million bandits roaming the countryside. They clogged the transport system and crammed into unsanitary cities. China was living up to the nickname: 'the Sick Man of Asia'.
• China at the end of the Civil War (economics)- There was no stable or unified currency and there were issues with hyperinflation. Bartering was common and shortages of goods led to hoarders. In 1940, 100 yuan could buy a pig. In 1945, 100 yuan could only buy a fish.
• China at the end of the Civil War (industry)- much of China's industry was destroyed in the war and local power stations had been bombed. Manchuria was controlled by the USSR who removed industrial equipment from factories and mines. 1949, factory output was 44% less than 1937. It presented an ideological problem too as Marx thought industry was needed to gain support of workers. Only 5% of China's population worked in industry.
• China at the end of the Civil War (agriculture)- 80% of the population lived in rural areas and were often too illiterate and uneducated to understand Marxism. In some areas, there was famine due to limited agricultural production. Peasant motivation came from the desire to escape poverty and gain land through land reform that communists promised.
• China at the end of the Civil War (infrastructure)- China was not unified after the Civil War as nationalist forces still remained in Taiwan under Chaing Kai-Shek. The nationalists were allied with the US who feared China's communism and wanted Mao removed. Central government was broken down due to Warlords bureaucracy in many areas, a lack of unified language and huge numbers of bandits that controlled travel and communication.
• China at the end of the Civil War (transport)- half of the railway tracks had been destroyed as a tactic by the communists because it disrupted nationalist supply lines. Mao had to rebuild to consolidate power due to telephone line damage, clogged harbours with sunken ships and little contact with rural towns due to railways.
• China at the end of the Civil War (cities)- rural and urban China were largely isolated from each other. Communist soldiers were mainly peasants who become the source of jokes when they took control of cities as they had never experienced the resources. One soldier washed his rice in the toilet and others brought their donkeys into hotel lobbies. The communists weren't well-prepared to run cities.
• China at the end of the Civil War (nationalist threat)- nationalists sent spies to attack the new regime of the PRC. The US supplied the nationalists with planes to bomb cities like Shanghai. One raid in 1950 killed over 1000 people. There was no hope at Chinese re-unification.
• Redistribution of land to peasants- as part of communist ideology, party cadres travelled to villages and encouraged peasant uprisings against landlords. Struggle meetings were held where landlords would be beaten whilst abused verbally and humiliated. At the end of the meeting, landlords would hand over their land which was then redistributed.
• The new constitution- The CCP organised a People's Political Consultative Conference of 662 delegates to create the Common Program for China. The provisional consitution provided the legal basis of the PRC. Delegates represented different backgrounds and made the PRC seem democratic.
• The Common Program- The Chinese constitution that allowed all people (except political reactionaries) freedom of speech, assembly, religion, demonstration and correspondence. It accepted a multiparty system and recognised private property and mutually beneficial relationships between workers and employees. It gave women equal rights and universal education with Soviet-style economic planning.
• Democratic Socialism- The CCP wanted an elected legislature, the National People's Congress, which would represent the people and meet once a year to make laws. The official powers included electing the PRC's chairman, deciding issues of war and setting out economic policy. There would be democratically elected congresses a local and provincial level too. Mao, however, used Confucius' policy of hierarchy to ensure his policies remained superior.
• The structure of government- Three separate but interwoven branches formed government. The Communist Party, the Central People's Government and the PLA. The political system enhanced Mao's power as there was little distinction between the branches as leaders at the top of the party were loyal to Mao and then also held positions in the People's Government and the PLA. Mao was chairman of the CCP and the PRC.
• The Communist Party makeup- The CCP co-ordinated government which was at first difficult as it only had 4.5 million people, making it difficult to rally support in rural areas specifically. Political power rested with the Party and therefore Mao as the chairman. The central committee of the CCP had 49 members ruled by a 25-man Politburo which was controlled by the standing committee of 5 members. Standing committee members included Mao, Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai.
• The Central People's Government- was organised according to principles of democratic centralism but in reality held massive independent power from the Political Consultative Conference. The government had legislative and executive powers to interpret and enforce law, annouce decrees and present the budget. It was headed by Zhou who co-ordinated 24 new ministries such as Justice, Heavy Industry, Finance and Food.
• People's Liberation Army- 'All political power lies in the barrel of a gun'. Mao created the PLA to strengthen national control and lead the reunification campaigns. A conscription law in 1955 ensured 800,000 new recruits every year. It was known as the big university as it taught soldiers how to read and write through communist propaganda to indoctinate the soldiers.
• 'Learn from the PLA' Campaign- instructed the people to learn from the revolutionary attributes of the soldiers. The PLA exemplified discipline, bravery and commitment to the communist cause. They were so important to Mao that they had legal immunity. The 1950 Marriage Act allowed divorce and as a result, Mao introduced a clause that made it more difficult for wives of PLA soldiers to divorce them.
• The PLA's economic role- they helped to build China's infrastructure through working on co-operative farms. Work teams of PLA soldiers contributed a week's free labour annually to help local costrution or irrigation projects. Every 50 men had to collectively raise a pig. In the Great Leap Forward, they also had to hunt the 4 pests and collect their own excrement for manure.
• Modernising the PLA- after losses in the Korean War, Mao and Peng Dehuai abandoned guerrilla tactics in favour of a modernised army. They reduced the army from 5 million to 3.5 million in 1953 with academies in Beijing and Nanjing to train officers in modern combat and solidify their loyalty to communism. Many were sent to the USSR too for advanced training and to get weapons like fighter jets.
• The Campaign to suppress 'counter-revolutionaries'- launched in 1950 to prevent nationalist sympathisers and spies from undermining the regime. Those who had worked for the nationalists were at risk such as academics and businessmen. Western businessmen were forced to leave the country with their property confiscated. In 1951, a decree by Mao labelled all forms of politcal dissent cause to be a class enemy so anyone could be purged.
• Self-registration- The Ministry of Public Security under the campaign against counter-revolutionaries asked all previous nationalist workers to register to start a new life. By registering, they essentially confessed and were arrested alongside previous colleagues. Many were rounded uo by the police in midnight arrests and never seen again.
• Mass participation- CCP encouraged ordinary citizens to rally and denounce counter-revolutionaries. Victims were subject to struggle meetings where they had to admit their guilt in front of crowds. Ordinary citizens chanted 'kill, kill, kill' and often the execution was carried out there and then. In 1951, the Ministry of Security created a pamphlet telling the public how to hold a struggle meeting. The 'People's Daily' paper published names of criminals each day and it was estimated that at the end of the campaign, 800000 had died in the first half of 1951.
• The Three Antis Campaign- 1951, Mao called for a 'big clean up' in the party directed against corruption, waste and bureaucracy. The middle classes supported this aim and used it as an excuse to remove civil servants that they didn't like. By late 1951, communists had trained enough cadres to run cities so former employees could be imprisoned or executed.
• The Five Antis Campaign- 1952, wanted to end bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, stealing state information and cheating on government contracts. It focused on removing the middle class and private business owners. If people confessed, they were treated more leniently, especially if they told on others. At the end, they were then executed as well. Another tactic was to tell families that their husbands were guilty and have them confess on their behalf.
• The Five Antis Campaign cont.- Workers were encouraged to turn on their bosses and loud speakers in cities urged people to 'confess!'. 'Tiger beaters' were employees from firms organised into groups by party cadres to gather evidence against former managers to torture them until they confessed. Parks were patrolled by police to stop people hanging themselves and many were sent to the laogai.
• Characteristics of the Anti campaigns- 30,000 people attended one meeting directed against local party bosses accused of corruption. 99% of businessmen in Shanghai were found to be guilty of at least one of the Antis. Private companies were forced to pay heavy fines and become public-private enterprises. The only way to protect yourself was to become utterly loyal to the CCP.
• The reunification campaigns- Mao used the PLA to establish control of peripheral regions of China. Places like Xinjiang and Tibet were border regions and Mao worried about foreign influence, especially through religion. Xinjiang had a large muslim population that had more in common with muslim populations in the USSR. Tibet was led by the Buddhist Dalai Lama that could rival Mao. The threat of religion also undermined communist aims of the CCP.
• The invasion of Tibet (1950)- Mao ordered the PLA to invade Tibet to remove them from the threat posed by the Dalai Lama and Buddhism. 60,000 Tibetans attempted to resist but were eventually forced to sign the 17-point agreement that merged Tibet into the PRC. They limited religious practice, Mandarin became the official language and political meetings were banned.
• Migration of Han Chinese to Tibet (1952)- Mao wanted to increase the population of Tibet from 3 million to 10 million. He wanted the Han Chinese to move there to remove the Tibetan strong-hold. The PLA built a highway to help move migrants and military forces into Tibet to replace their culture and way of life.
• Propaganda and exile in Tibet- Propaganda attempted to spread communist ideas with papers and magazine printing about the benefits of socialism. Radio programs told Tibetans to be thankful to Mao and publicly, Tibetan leaders had no choice but to support him. In 1959, when the Tibetans rebelled, they were brutally suppressed by the PLA and the Dalai Lama fled to exile in India.
• Xinjiang- The province in Western China had a large Muslim population with close ethnic ties to Muslims in the USSR. They had different languages and cultures to the rest of China. Uighur Muslims were the largest minority group with 4 million living in the province. They violently resisted attempts to unite with China so the CCP used military force and negotiation. Leaders were invited to a conference but their plance crashed; their successors agreed to unite with China. Han Chinese were also sent there after 1950 when they joined the PRC.
• Guangdong- A southern province in China that had previously been a nationalist stronghold. The regime feared that enemy spies remained within the area, especially in Canton where anti-communist sentiment remained. An estimated 28,000 people were executed in Guangdong during the 'Suppress counter-revolutionaries' campaign.
• Laogai- Labour camps were set up to imprison enemies of the CCP and spread across China. 1955, there were more than 1.3 million people undergoing forced labour. 300,000 prisoners were political enemies like doctors and engineers who had been rounded up by anti-counter-revolutionary campaigns. Crimes included listening to foreign radio and not meeting work quotas.
• Conditions for Laogai inmates- Inmates completed physical abour like building roads and digging reservoirs. Conditions were appalling and diarrhoea and dysentery were common. In Sichuan, inmates had to build railroads in the dead of Winter with no trousers. Torture was common and many committed suicide. 27 million are estimated to have died in labour camps during Mao's rule (Jung Chang). At one point, there were 10 million prisoners in one year. Prisoners in total contributed over 700 million yuan in industrial production.
• Benefits of the Laogai- it was means to terrorise and intimidate the population, spreading fear and enforcing compliance to communism. They re-educated those who threated the regime through study sessions and indoctrination. Some prisoners had to denounce their fellow inmates to prove their ideological purity.
• Background of the Hundred Flowers Campaign- After the CCP took power, intellectuals didn't flee to Taiwan due to the promise of a modern China. However, they were educated due to their wealth and from that came inequality. As Mao developed the dictatorship, they realised that the democratic China they had been promised was unlikely and became disillusioned and hid their background of education.
• Asking the intellectuals for help (100 flowers)- In 1956, Mao believed he needed intellectual support to help boost the economy. Most of the party was unelected peasants so they needed help from those who could organise modern industries, develop technology and provide agricultural solutions to boost the economy.
• Rectification of the Party (100 flowers)- Mao feared that the party was becoming less revolutionary and too bureaucratic. Party cadres had become a new class and the 'revolutionaries had become rulers'. Mao wanted intellectuals to point out mistakes of party members and force them to act in the people's interests. He wanted more radical economic reforms and hoped that intellectuals would criticise the lack of reform so he could remove bureaucratic cadres.