Atypical gender development

• Define ‘gender dysphoria’.


  Gender dysphoria refers to the distress an individual feels if there is a mismatch between their external sex characteristics and their psychological identity as being either a man or a woman.

  The first signs of gender dysphoria typically appear at a very young age whereby a child may refuse to wear clothes or engage in activities typically associated with their gender.

  In most cases, this behaviour will pass in time. For those with gender dysphoria, it continues through to adulthood.
• Outline biological explanations for gender dysphoria.


  The release of too much or too little testosterone in the womb could lead to gender dysphoria.

  Too much testosterone in the womb could lead to female fetuses being over exposed to testosterone. This can masculinise their brain, later leading to a masculine gender identity.

  Too little testosterone in the womb could lead to male fetuses being under exposed to testosterone. This can feminine their brain, later leading to a feminine gender identity.
• Outline biological explanations for gender dysphoria.

  The size of an individual’s BSTc (a brain structure) could lead to gender dysphoria as it has been found to correlate with individual’s psychological identify as being either a man or a woman.

  Males typically have larger BSTc volumes and this has also been found in female-to-male transgender individuals, hence explaining why they identify as a man.

  Females typically have smaller BSTc volumes and this has been found in male-to-female transgender individuals, hence explaining why they identify as a woman.
• Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria: supporting evidence.


  Research investigating male-to-female transgender individuals have found that they are more likely to have a gene that reduces the ability of testosterone binding to its receptors. In turn, this leads to less testosterone activity. This is a strength because it shows how atypical hormone activity (e.g. less testosterone) may lead to gender dysphoria (e.g. a man identifying as a woman).
• Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria: supporting evidence from twin studies. 


  E.g. twin studies have found a higher concordance rate of gender dysphoria in MZ twins who share 100% of their genes in comparison to DZ twins who share 50% of their genes. This is a strength because it suggests a genetic and thus biological component to gender dysphoria. Therefore adds credibility.
• Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria: supporting evidence from twin studies suffer from confounding variables.


  This is because MZ twins are more likely to share similar environmental experiences than DZ twins due to always being of the same sex and looking more alike. This means that their higher concordance rate for gender dysphoria could be due to social factors (such as the gender-related behaviours they have observed and imitated or the gender-related behaviours they have been reinforced/punished for) rather than biological factors such as their genes.
• Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria: difficult to establish cause and effect when it comes to the role of the BSTc.


  Research has shown that differences in BSTc volume in transgender individuals do not typically develop until adulthood despite feelings of gender dysphoria in childhood. This is a limitation because it suggests that changes in the BSTc volume may be a result rather than a cause of gender dysphoria. E.g. participants in the research were receiving hormone therapy and so the hormones they were taking could have caused changes to their BSTc.
• Evaluate biological explanations for gender dysphoria: explain short-term experiences of gender dysphoria.


  This is because some experiences of gender dysphoria only last a few years. This is a limitation because it could be argued that the individual’s biology had not changed in the time between when an individual experiences gender dysphoria and when they stop experiencing gender dysphoria. Instead, social explanations are better able to explain such findings – perhaps individuals are punished more for cross-gender behaviour as they age and so they stop displaying it in adulthood.
• Outline social explanations for gender dysphoria. 


  Social explanations for gender dysphoria propose that it is learned through environmental experiences such as operant conditioning and social learning.
• Outline social explanations for gender dysphoria.

  In terms of operant conditioning, gender dysphoria may be learned when an individual is reinforced for displaying cross-gender behaviour, resulting in them repeating the behaviour.

  Young boys tend to experiment with wearing dresses and so it is proposed that parents of individuals with gender dysphoria may have encouraged their sons when they displayed this behaviour, making them more likely to do it again.
• Outline social explanations for gender dysphoria.

  SLT proposes that gender dysphoria is learned through observation and imitation of cross-gender behaviour.

  Individuals with gender dysphoria may have lacked a gender stereotypical role model and so they may have observed and imitated the gender-related behaviours of role models of the opposite gender.

  This is presumed to occur more in males (e.g. boys being raised by single-parent mothers) as gender dysphoria typically presents more often in boys than girls.
• Evaluate social explanations for gender dysphoria: supporting evidence. 


  Research into gender-dysphoric boys have found that the majority lack stereotypical male role models. This is a strength because it suggests that individuals can develop gender dysphoria if they do not have any same-sex role models modelling gender- stereotypical behaviours that they can observe and imitate.
• Evaluate social explanations for gender dysphoria: supporting evidence. 


  More children than adults are identified as gender dysphoric meaning that, in some cases, it is only temporary. This is a strength because social factors can explain this since a child displaying cross-gender behaviour is more likely to be tolerated than an adult in that people are more likely to punish adults for displaying gender ‘inappropriate’ behaviour. Biological explanations would not be able to explain why gender dysphoria is sometimes short term as their biology would not have changed.
• Evaluate social explanation: unable to explain why gender dysphoria cannot be unlearned.


  Being bullied for displaying gender ‘inappropriate’ behaviour doesn't cause individuals to ‘unlearn’ their gender dysphoria. This is a limitation because gender dysphoria can be learned when individuals are reinforced for cross-gender behaviour. It should be possible to ‘unlearn’ gender dysphoria by being punished for cross-gender behaviour. The strong and persistent desire to identify as the opposite gender despite bullying points to a biological rather than social explanation.