topic 1

• A condensation reaction is when two or more glucose molecules fuse together, this reaction creates water.
• Hydrolysis reactions are the breaking of molecules of glucose, this reaction uses up water
• beta glucose is insoluble with 1.4 glycosidic bonds which is used as a structural molecule
• alpha glucose is HOH
• beta glucose is OHH
• glucose molecules are made of 6 carbon atoms and 1 oxygen atom
• examples of disaccharides are lactose and maltose and sucrose
• Lactose acts as the carbohydrate in milk
• maltose is used as a storage of sugar
• sucrose is a sugar transported in plants
• polysaccharides are formed by the condensation of many monosaccharides
• examples of polysaccharides are amylopectin and amylase
• amelopectin is a branched polysaccharide, meaning that it is a quick release of energy that is a component of starch
• amylose is a long chain of alpha glucose and is coiled and unbranched so it is used to store a lot of energy
• glycogen is formed of amylopectin and amylose joined through a glycosidic bond
• cellulose is a polysaccharide made of beta-glucose units joined by beta-glycosidic bonds and is present in plant cell walls meaning it is rigid and insoluble
• starch is formed by amylose and amylopectin and is insoluble
• glycogen is formed of amylose and more amylopectin
• glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triglyceride + 3 water molecules
• triglycerides are water proof and are used for insulation such as nerve or heat
• phospholipids are made up of a glycerol backbone, a phosphate group and two fatty acids
• phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
• a peptide bond is between amino acids and is formed by condensation reactions this results in a dipeptide molecule
• proteins can be broken down into polypeptides which are chains of amino acids
• polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides joined together with glycosidic bonds
• the primary structure of proteins is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain using peptide bonds
• The secondary structure of proteins is the folding of the polypeptide chain into an alpha helix and beta sheets using hydrogen bonds
• the tertiary structure of proteins is the shape of a folded polypeptide chain in 3D using disulphide, ionic and hydrogen bonds
• quaternary structure of proteins is the 3D structure of multiple tertiary structured molecules using hydrogen bonds and electrostatic forces
• haemoglobin is an example of a globular protein that is a heme protein
• collagen in an example of a fibrous protein that is a structural component of tissue and is an example of the tertiary structure of polypeptide chains
• nitrate ions are used in amino acids synthesis in the body
• calcium ions are required in the formation of the middle lamella in calcium pectate
• magnesium ions are used in the production of chlorophyll, which is needed for photosynthesis
• phosphate ions are used to make ATP and phospholipids
• competitive inhibitors are competing with the substrate for the active site
• non-competitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme at a different site to the substrate this process is reversible, unlike the competitive inhibitors as they change the shape of the active site
• DNA replication is the process of making two identical copies of DNA in a cell.
• in the first stage of DNA replication, the DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the phosphate groups
• the second step of DNA replication is the formation of a new strand of DNA where free nucleotides align to their complementary base pairings and fuse by DNA polymerase which join the bases through hydrogen bonds