Risk Factors

• Risk Factors of Addiction:

  1. family
  2. peers
  3. genetics
  4. stress
  5. personality
• Family influence addictive behaviours through social learning and their expectations
• Family Influence:

  • addiction is caused by perceived parental approval
  • believe parents have no interest in monitoring their behaviour
  • exposure
• If adolescents have substance abusing parents they are more likely to engage in substances abuse themselves - Biederman et al 2000
• Social Learning theory suggests that addictive behaviours are learned through observing people we spend the most time with e.g. family
• social learning theory involves imitation, attention, retention, motivation and reproduction
• Motivation is influenced by vicarious reinforcement and identification
• Peer pressure makes people with low self esteem more vulnerable to addiction because they may be encourage by people around them
• Peers refers to people of same age and status
• Social Identity Theory - Tajfel + Turner (1986):

  part of an individual's self concept is formed as a result of the groups they are a part of (in groups). It is essential to be associated with the in group to be socially accepted - normative social influence
• Genes make people more vulnerable to addiction if they have a prediposed biological vulnerability
• Twin Studies:

  • Slutske et al (2010) found that MZ twins had a higher concordance rate of both twins being pathological gamblers than DZ
  • Vink et al (2005) studied 1,572 dutch twin pairs & found that the likelihood of becoming addicted to nicotine was influenced by genetic factors
• D2 Receptor Gene:

  • Blum + Payne (1991) suggest that individuals who are vunerable to drug addiction have abnormally low numbers of D2 receptors
  • It could be that taking addictive substances raise levels of dopamine to feel rewars
• CYP2A6 Enzyme

  • Individuals are better at metabolising substances so they are at greater risk of developing addiction
  • Pienezza et al (1998) found some people lacked a fully functioning enzyme responsible for metabolising nicotine were found to smoke less
  • a fully functioning CYP2A6 enzyme increases the genetic risk of nicotine addiction
• Stress - people deal with stressful events by engaging in a variety of behaviours to make them feel better
• Stress:

  1. self medication
  2. traumatic stress
• Self Medication:

  • Self medication model (Gelkopf 2002) proposes individuals intentionally use pathological behaviour (drug) to treat psychological symptoms
  • Stress is one of the strongest predictors of relapse (Dawes 2000) for drug abusers
  • The perception that it helps is instrumental in that behaviour becoming an addiction
• Traumatic Stress:

  • People exposed to sever stress are more vulnerable to addictions
  • Robins (1974) interviewed US soldiers back from War and almost half had used opium or heroin during duty with 20% with a psychological or physical dependence for heroin at some point during the war
• Anderson + Teicher suggest that early experiences of severe stress have damaging effects on the brain in a sensitive period of development, creating vulnerability to addiction by early adulthood
• Personality:

  • Barnes (2000) developed the addiction prone personality scale to assess the influence of personality factors on addictive behaviour
  • Impulsivity + hostility are linked to addiction
• An impulsive personality is an example of an anti social behaviour and are people who act without thinking and fail to acknowledge the risks
• People with insufficient serotonin systems are prone to making reckless decisions as they need immediate gratification
• Eysenck (1997) suggested an individual develops an addictive habit because it fulfils a certain purpose related to personality type:

  • Psychoticism: aggressive, cold & emotionally detached
  • Neuroticism: moody, irritable & anxious
• Supporting research evidence - family risk factor

  Livingston (2010) found that high school students who were allowed by their parents to drink alcohol at home were significantly more likely to drink a lot at college. Suggesting having a family that demonstrate perceived approval towards addictive substances increases addiction vunerabiliyy
• Supporting Research Evidence - Peers:

  Taylor studied sample of 900 American boys and found by the time they were 20 years old, 64% had given into peer pressure to use drugs and 10% had developed a drug addiction. Suggesting peer pressure makes people vulnerable to addiction
• Supporting research Evidence - Genetics Kendler 2012
• Supporting research Evidence - genetics:

  Kendler 2012 used data from national Swedish adoption study and found those with a biological parent with addiction had a greater risk of developing addiction compared to those without. Increasing validity of the genetic explanation
• Supporting research Evidence - Stress

  Piazza tested rats for vulnerability to stress. rats were more likely to seek out and ingest amphetamine the more stressed they got. Suggesting stress makes addiction more likely
• Supporting research Evidence - personality

  Bush studied 250 American smokers and found those with an impulsive personality started at a young age. Suggesting those with an impulsive personality are more vulnerable to addiction because they are prone to making reckless decisions
• Inability to establish cause and effect - family

  suggests a negative family home environment causes addiction however it may be that the negative effects of addiction is causing family conflict. Makes it difficult to separate whether these factors are the cause or the effect, decreasing validity
• Inability to establish cause and effect - Peers

  Research suggests peer pressure from addicted peers causes addiction but it could be that individuals are already addicted and choose to spend their time with other addicted peers
• Inability to establish cause and effect - genetics

  research shows low levels of D2 receptor causes addiction but it could be that the low number of D2 receptors is due to the damage the addictive substances causes in the brain
• Inability to establish cause and effect - stress

  research shows stress causes addiction but it may be that the raised stress levels is due to the addiction (relationships)
• Inability to establish cause and effect - personality

  research suggests certain traits may cause an individual to partake in addictive behaviour but it could be that the addictive drug changes brain development to make them more impulsive
• Reductionism - all risk factors

  Mayes & Suchmai (2006) suggest different combinations of risk factors determine nature or severity of an addiction. An individual may be more at risk if they have a genetic precursor and an environmental trigger. Suggesting there are different pathways to addiction and it is too simplistic to suggest on risk factor is more important