cultural explanations

• Buss (1989) found that men and women desire the same universal things in potential partners cross-culturally with men seeking attractiveness and women seeking resources. The fact that there are universal similarities suggest biology is exerting an influence in shaping gender behaviour which social factors then simply refine.
• Cross-cultural research demonstrates the importance of cultural influences on gender roles. Margaret Mead's study of tribes in Papua New Guinea (1935) found distinct gender roles varying between tribes, such as the Tchambuli tribe, where women were dominant and men were more passive, challenging the universality of traditional Western gender roles.
• However, Mead's findings were later criticized for observer bias, as her interpretations might have been influenced by her own cultural expectations. This highlights the difficulty of achieving objective conclusions in cross-cultural research, which may undermine the validity of conclusions about cultural influences on gender.
• One limitation of research into cultural influences is the risk of ethnocentrism and imposed etics. Western researchers may interpret gender roles in other cultures through the lens of their own cultural norms, leading to biased conclusions.
• For example, the assumption that male dominance is universally "natural" could skew the interpretation of patriarchal structures in non-Western societies. To address this, emic approaches that focus on the unique cultural context of each society are essential. Without this consideration, research risks overgeneralization and the misrepresentation of cultural influences on gender.
•  She examined three different tribes and found the Arapesh men and women to be gentle, responsive and cooperative; the Mundugumor men and women were violent and aggressive, seeking power and position; and the Tchambuli showed the opposite gender-role behaviours to those seen in most cultures, as the women were dominant, impersonal and managerial and the men were more emotionally dependent. Mead originally concluded that these differences highlight the impact of culture on gender.