approaches

• who opened the first ever lab dedicated to psychology in Germany?

  Wilhem Wundt
• why is wundts work significant?

  It marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its philosophical roots
• what was wundts aim?

  to try to analyse the nature of human consciousness, and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions
• what was his method known as?

  introspection
• what is introspection?


  Was used to understand the mind, specifically sensations and feelings-Trained observers were presented with a controlled stimuli (i.e. a ticking metronome)-Participants were asked to describe how the stimuli made them think/feel-The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person (standardised procedure)
• what is the behaviourist approach?

  a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
• what is the 1st assumption of the behaviourist approach

  -Behaviour is learned through the environment#

  
  

  -believe people are born a blank slate, and our behaviour is learnt from the environment.

  
  

  -means behaviourists are strongly on the nurture side.
• what is the 2nd assumption of the behaviourist approach?

  -Behaviour is learned through association (Classical conditioning) Pavlovs dogs

  
  

  -means that in their research, animals replace humans as experimental subjects
• what is the 3rd assumption of the behaviourist approach?

  -Behaviour is learned through operant conditioning - Skinner research

  
  

  -identified 2 types of conditioning
• what is classical conditioning?

  -Learning through association

  
  

  -happens when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together (UCS and NS)
• what is operant conditioning?

  a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consqs

  
  

  -possible consqs of behaviour include reinforcement (P or N) and punishment
• explain Pavlovs dog study into classical conditioning

  1. Dog presented with food (UCS), which made the dog salivate (UCR). This is all natural.

  
  

  2. Pavlov rang a bell, which the dog did not respond to. This made it a neutral stimulus (NS)

  
  

  3. Everytime food was presented to the dog, the bell was rung to create association between the two. This was repeated each time.

  
  

  4. Eventually, the dog began salivating to the sound of the bell as it has learnt to associate the sound with food. (Conditioned response) The bell is now a conditioned stimulus.
• what is positive reinforcement?

  receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
• e.g of positive reinforcement in skinners rats

  received food pellets when lever was pushed
• what is negative reinforcement?

  avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed
• e.g of negative reinforcement in skinners rats

  changed to electric shock so rat no longer pressed the button
• what is punishment


  an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
• what are the assumptions of learning theory

  - agree with behaviourists that most of our behaviour is learned from experience

  -people learn from observation and imitation of others
• what is imitation?


  copying the behaviour of others they have observed (role models)
• what is identification?


  more likely that someone will imitate the behaviour of role models with whom they identify or who have similar characteristics to them
• what is modelling?


  Imitating the behaviour of a role model
• what is vicarious reinforcement?

  Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour (internalises behaviour wants to get positive reinforcement)
• explain Bandura's bobo doll research

  Children watched an adult behaving aggresively towards a doll or non aggressively

  Children whod seen aggression were more aggressive towards the doll

  So studies suggest that children are likely to imitate (model) acts of violence if they observe an adult role model doing so

  Modelling agg behaviour is more likely if its seen to be rewarded (vic reinf)
• what 4 mediational processes did Bandura identify?

  Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction and Motivation
• what is attention?


  The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
• what is retention?


  whether behaviour is remembered
• what is motor reproduction?

  The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
• what is motivation?


  the will to perform the behaviour, usually determined by whether the behaviour is punished or rewarded
• what are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?

  -argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically e.g memory, thinking, attention and perception

  -processes are private so cannot be observed, so study them indirectly by making inferences abt whats going on inside peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour
• what are internal mental processes?

  'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response. Cannot be observed, inferences
• what is schema?

  a mental framework for how we view the world developed through experience.
• what is inference?


  The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
• explain the role of schemas in cognitive processing

  Schemas are mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences. They play a crucial role in cognitive processing by allowing us to process vast amounts of information efficiently, guiding our behavior and expectations, and filling in gaps in memory. Schemas also influence perception, sometimes leading to biases or errors, and aid in learning and decision-making by providing a mental template for understanding new concepts. While schemas enhance cognitive efficiency, they can also lead to distortions, such as false memories and stereotyping.
• how are theoretical models used to explain and make inferences about mental processes

  Theoretical models are simplified representations of how the mind processes information. Since mental processes cannot be directly observed, these models help psychologists make inferences about how information is taken in, stored, and recalled. They are often shown as diagrams to illustrate the steps involved.
• e.g of theoretical model

  An example is the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), which explains how information passes through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model helps researchers understand memory and make predictions about how it works in real life.
• how are computer models used to explain and make inferences about mental processes

  Computer models compare the mind to a computer, explaining how information is processed in a systematic way. These models suggest that the brain works like a computer, with inputs (sensory information), processing (mental operations), and outputs (responses). Psychologists use them to make inferences about cognitive processes such as memory, perception, and decision-makingSee an expert-written answer!We have an expert-written solution to this problem!
• e.g of computer model

  AI
• what is cognitive neuroscience?

  The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
• when and why did cog ns emerge as a separate discipline?

  only in the last 20 years through advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans have scientists been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
• give some e.gs of findings of cog ns research

  -research in memory has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex in the brain (Tulving et al 1994)

  -mind mapping techniques known as 'brain fingerprinting' has led to computer generated models