Psychology - TAA-Psychology

• Computer Analogy

  The human mind can be compared to a computer with input, processing and output stages
• Culture

  Refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people
• Evolution

  The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
• Information Processing


  Behavior can be understood in terms of information flowing through the cognitive (mental) system in a series of stages
• Learned Response

  A behavior acquired through conditioning , either association (classical) or rewards/punishments (operant)
• Social Context

  Influences from other people, either individually or in groups
• Capacity

  The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
• Duration

  The length of time information can be kept in a memory store
• Encoding

  The process of converting information from one form to another so it can be stored in the various memory stores and passed between them
• long-term Memory (LTM)

  Permanent memory store with practically unlimited capacity, storing memories for up to a lifetime. Encoding is mainly semantic (meaning)
• Sensory Memory (SM)

  Memory stores for each of our five senses, e.g. vision (iconic store) and hearing (echoic store). Encoding in the iconic store is visual and in the echoic store is acoustic. Capacity is huge but duration is very brief
• Short-term Memory (STM)

  Limited-capacity memory store. Encoding is mainly acoustic (sounds), capacity is between 5 and 9 items, duration is up to 30 seconds without rehearsal
• Cue

  A 'trigger' that allows us to access material in memory. Cues can be meaningfully linked to the material (e.g. mnemonics) or can be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning (e.g. external context and internal state).
• Recall

  In free recall the individual generates information without a cue. In cued recall, a cue assist retrieval of information
• Recognition

  A form of memory retrieval where you identify something based on previous experiences
• Remembering

  The activity of retrieving information from a memory store
• Confabulation

  When details are added to a memory to fill in the 'gaps' to make recall meaningful
• Rationalisation

  When parts of a memory are distorted to fit your schema, to make the memory meaningful
• Reconstructive Memory

  Pieces of stored information are reassembled during recall. The process is guided by our schemas so that we produce a 'memory' that makes sense (even if it is inaccurate)
• Schema

  A mental package of beliefs and expectations that influence memory. They change (reconstruct) memories through shortening, rationalization and confabulation
• Shortening

  When part of a memory is left out, so what remains is shorter
• Associative Priming


  We process a stimulus more quickly (or recall it more easily) because we earlier encountered a stimulus that is often paired with it.
• Repetition Priming

  We process a stimulus more quickly (or recall it more easily) because we encountered it earlier.
• Semantic Priming

  We process a stimulus more quickly (or recall it more easily) because we earlier encountered a stimulus related to it in meaning (semantics = meaning)
• Cognitive Scripts

  Information stored in memory that describes the behaviors typical in a given situation, which we retrieve to guide our behavior
• Memory Scripts

  Knowledge of behaviors, roles, outcomes, etc. stored in memory tell us what to expect in a social situation and how to behave.
• Person Perception

  Information stored in memory about which personality characteristics often go together, which guide our impressions of other people
• Cognitive Biases

  Errors in how we process information that affect our attention, memory and decision making
• Confirmation Bias

  We pay more attention to (and recall more easily) information that supports our existing beliefs. We may seek it out and ignore contradictory information
• Fundamental Attribution Error

  In explaining the reasons for other people's behavior, we focus on their personal characteristics and overlook the role of the situation
• Conformity

  'A change in a person's behavior or opinion as a result of real of imagined pressure from a person of group of people' (Aronson 2011)
• Informational Social Influence (ISI)

  We agree with the behavior of others because we believe it is correct. We accept it because we want to be correct
• Normative Social Influence (NSI)


  We agree with the behavior of others because we want to be accepted and liked, and to avoid rejection
• Compliance

  The individual does not privately agree with the majority but goes along with it anyway, usually because they do not want to be rejected
• Identification

  The individual temporarily goes along with the norms and roles of the group because they see membership as part of their identity
• Internalization

  The individual goes along with the group opinion because they genuinely believe it is correct, so private views are changed
• Common Goals

  The outcomes of group activity that all members share and work towards
• Group Cohesion

  The extent to which group members are psychologically bonded and 'pull in the same direction
• Groupthink


  The tendency of cohesive groups to strive for agreement, which overrides the need to analyze decisions realistically and to consider criticisms and alternatives
• Intra-group Dynamics

  The psychological processes that take place in any group