ethological/evolutionary explanations

• Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression pt 1: The evolutionary explanation of aggression provides a useful framework for understanding why certain aggressive behaviors may have developed as adaptive responses, particularly in relation to survival and reproductive success. For example, it explains why males might exhibit more aggression than females, as males may have historically competed for resources and mates, leading to behaviors like mate guarding and dominance displays that increased their chances of reproductive success
• Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression pt 2: However, a key criticism of this explanation is its inability to account for all forms of aggression, particularly those observed in modern contexts, such as reactive aggression (e.g., road rage or unprovoked violence), which do not seem to confer any survival advantage. Moreover, evolutionary explanations can be speculative and difficult to test empirically because they rely on assumptions about ancestral environments, making it hard to establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship
• Evolutionary Explanation 3: there are methodological issues with the evidence, as much of the research is correlational and retrospective, lacking experimental rigor. however, it overlooks the influence of social and environmental factors, such as upbringing or cultural norms, which can also shape aggressive behaviors. it can be critiqued for being reductionist, as it oversimplifies complex behaviors by attributing them solely to evolutionary pressures without fully considering contemporary influences.
• Ethological Explanation of Aggression pt 2: However, applying this explanation to human aggression has limitations, as it fails to account for the flexibility and variation in human behavior. For instance, if aggression were purely innate, we would expect consistent aggression levels across cultures, yet research by Nisbett has shown significant cultural differences in how aggression is expressed, suggesting that social learning and environmental influences also play a key role.
• Ethological Explanation of Aggression pt 3: Additionally, critics argue that the ethological approach is overly simplistic, as human aggression can be driven by a wide array of factors, including social norms, personal experiences, and cognitive appraisals, rather than just biological instincts.
• Ethological Explanation of Aggression pt 4: Furthermore, the research supporting ethological theories is often based on animal studies, which raises questions about whether findings can be generalized to humans, given the differences in complexity between human and animal behavior. Therefore, while the ethological explanation provides valuable insights into the biological basis of aggression, it underestimates the importance of human cognition and socialization in shaping aggressive behavior.

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• What is the ethological explanation of aggression?

  the ethological explanation posits that aggression is an innate behaviour with evolutionary significance, helping individuals secure resources, mates and territory. According to this view, aggression is triggered by specific stimuli known as innate releasing mechanisms, leading to preprogrammed stereotyped behaviours known as fixed action patterns.
• How does evolutionary theory explain aggression?

  The evolutionary explanation argues that aggression has developed because it increases the liklihood of survival and reproductive success. For example, male aggression may serve to secure resources, defend territory, or protect offspring, all of which increase reproductive opportunities. Infidelity and jelousy are also seen as evolutionary triggers of aggression, particularly in males, as they fear cuckoldry (investing resources in another mans offspring). therefore aggression can be seen as an adaptive trait passed down through generations.
• ethological explanation

  seeks to understand the innate behaviour of animals (including humans) by studying them in their natural environment. The focus of an ethological explanation is to try and account for behaviour in terms of its adaptive value to the specific species.
• fixed action patterns 


  an instinctive behavioral sequence that is highly stereotyped and species-characteristic
• innate releasing mechanisms 


   a neural network in the brain that responds to a specific stimulus and triggers a particular response.
• characteristics of FAPs 


  stereotyped, complex, species-characteristic, released, triggered, and independent of experience
• ritualized aggression 


  when animals use a range of behaviours as posture or warning but without engaging in serious aggression or fighting, which would be expensive in terms of energy and the risk of injury.
• sign stimulus 


  a specific external stimulus that causes an innate releasing mechanism
• wilson and daly - mate retention strategies 


  direct guarding - male vigilance over a partners behaviour

  negative inducements - issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity
• nisbett (1996)found that in a laboratory experiment when South American white males were insulted they were more likely to respond aggressively than white North American males under the same conditions. This research demonstrates cultural differences that would be problematic for the ethological explanation to account for, as there was a high variation in aggressive responses.
• Evolutionary theories are useful because they can provide an explanation for gender differences in aggression. For example, Campbell (1999) suggested that females are more likely to engage in acts of verbal, as opposed to physical, aggression as this ensures that their own survival, as well as the survival of their offspring, is not endangered. Such tactics also prevents females from being involved in life-threatening physical confrontations with their partners, and so further increases their chance of survival through the use of non-aggressive methods of resolving conflicts (Bess and Shackleford). This utility increases the validity of the evolutionary explanation of aggression.
• Innate releasing mechanisms are biologically hard-wired mechanisms for aggression (e.g. brain structures or neural pathways for aggression). Environmental cues (e.g. the red belly of a rival stickleback) trigger the innate releasing mechanism. This releases a fixed action pattern of behaviour.
• Tinbergen (1952) demonstrates how fixed action patterns in sticklebacks are universal. When Tinbergen presented male sticklebacks with models of fish with red bellies (even when the model was not realistic looking), they all responded with the same fixed action pattern of fighting behaviour. The universal nature of this behaviour suggests the fixed action pattern is innate.